نشریه توسعه محلی (روستایی - شهری)
سال چهاردهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 27، پاییز و زمستان 1401)

The dam projects in the country are carried out with the aim of development at the macro level and the distribution of their benefits at the local and national levels. Generally, these projects are implemented with a technocratic approach and decision making is done at the highest level of policy makers and with the least participation of local people. This has the most challenging, sustainable, and widespread multidimensional economic, social, cultural, and environmental consequences at the national, regional, and local levels. The aim of this research is to evaluate development plans and policies focusing on dam projects in Ilam province.

This study used the qualitative method and a critical ethnographic approach to investigate dam projects in Ilam province to determine local communities’ understanding of the dam project, their role in the decision-making and implementation process, and the balance of power among project beneficiaries. Data collection was conducted through participant observation and ethnographic interviews.

The research findings show that cash payment policies, lack of decision-making and political will, and lack of a coherent resettlement and relocation plan were the most prevalent aspects of policies and programs in dam projects. 

The results of this research show that the policies and programs undertaken in development projects,have created challenges for the villages affected by the projects. By treating the local population as strangers, they have ignored the participation and accompaniment of local people and the use of local and indigenous knowledge.

The transformation of villages into cities has many visible and hidden consequences, such as the change of the physical structure, the increase of the cost of living and the deterioration of the cohesion of the local community. The aim of this article is to study the sociology of the main reasons for the transformation of the village into a city and its effects and consequences with special attention to the social and identity dimensions of the villagers. For this reason, Qala-e-Naw city was selected as the field of study from the functions of Rey city in Tehran province, which has been transformed from a village to a city for several years.

The research method was qualitative and based on grounded theory. Using random sampling among Qala-e-Naw and Snowball residents (experts and professionals), in-depth interviews were conducted until theoretical saturation was reached, which finally included 20 interviews.

The data analysis identified three main categories of goals from the transformation from rural to urban, changes after urbanization, and the negative consequences on social structure and identity, which according to the interviews are in the first category: Physical development and creation of space for development, an urban title instead of a village, an urban budget, and the improvement of urban services in the second category; The lack of tangible changes, the opening of agencies and offices, the increase in the cost of living, the increase in urban fees, the change in the local context, the increase in construction activity and the increase in land prices, the improvement of urban services and economic growth and prosperity and in the third category: The lack of direct awareness and information, the impact on spatial identification and sense of belonging, the lack of active participation, the lack of a sense of ownership, and the lack of self-governance and self-management were extracted.

The results show that the most important reasons for converting a village into a city in the eyes of rural residents are to have more and more urban services and benefits. However, the transformation of a village into a city also has unintended consequences, such as changes in the local environment with direct impacts on rural economic activities, such as livestock and agriculture, the influx of foreigners, and higher living costs, especially for housing. The transformation of the village into a city also has negative consequences in social and identity terms, such as the reduction of the sense of belonging to the space.

In view of the importance of knowledge and attention to the nature and type of indicators of social and cultural sustainability of Tehran city in urban policy and planning by the officials and trustees, this study, based on a hybrid conceptual framework, compiles and prioritizes the indicators of the construct of social and cultural sustainability of Tehran city in view of the role of Tehran City Council and Municipality. This research was conducted using a quantitative method (survey method with questionnaire and a checklist of indicators) and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and network analysis. In this method, the indicators were finalized after the initial list was compiled, refined, validated, and weighted by 30 relevant experts selected based on purposive, snowball, and key person sampling strategies. The priority of social sustainability indicators related to equity and justice, social participation, social responsibility, sustainability of local communities, recognition of social groups, preservation and improvement of urban nature, sustainability of population, and reorganization of labor. In the dimension of cultural sustainability of Tehran city, the indicators of cultural diversity, cultural participation, cultural equality, cultural identity, cultural heritage, prosperity and realization, and innovation were ranked. The results indicate that social and cultural sustainability is a totality which, on the one hand, is fluid, dynamic and changing due to its dialectical logic and, therefore, no static indicators can be given for it, and, on the other hand, its indicators cannot be derived from this totality. In fact, all these components are not an isolated concept and independent of other components, and all these components together form the totality of Tehran’s social and cultural sustainability.

The potentials of housing provision in deteriorated urban zones as part of the Iranian government’s national housing programs (e.g., national housing initiative and now national housing movement) has attracted the attention of policymakers. Yet, little action has been taken so for to realize such potentials. The Tehran Municipality has however implemented a “home exchange” initiative in the past as part of its renovation program in the city’s deteriorated zones—entailing the voluntary relocation of owners of dilapidated housing units to replacement homes. This activity appears to constitute the only experience of housing provision in deteriorated zones involving the local government. Its assessment against some adequate housing criteria could arguably benefit the formulation and implementation of future housing initiatives in deteriorated urban zones. In this study, the “home exchange” experiences associated with two of Tehran’s neighborhoods—Atabak and Minabi—are analyzed.

A qualitative approach was employed for the analysis and data were collected through observations and interviews with three groups of stakeholders—local residents, public sector, and private sector—as well as a review of documents. A total of 30 interviews were conducted. The investigation relied on a set of adequate housing criteria, which included construction quality, cultural compatibility, inclusiveness, affordability, and adequacy of access to infrastructure and services. Based on these, separate interview themes were prepared for different stakeholders.

Findings indicate that the housing initiatives carried out under the auspices of Tehran Municipality in the studied neighborhoods’ deteriorated zones have been successful in meeting some of the adequate housing criteria. These specifically include ensuring an acceptable level of construction quality and incorporating some cultural considerations in the initiatives. However, the activities have failed achieve any reasonable level of inclusiveness. Furthermore, providing quality housing for a section of the society has taken place at the expense of reduced levels of services/infrastructure or diminished housing affordability for vulnerable groups. Finally, public-private partnership between Tehran Municipality Renovation Organization and housing corporations for the purpose of carrying out large-scale projects has met failure due to their lack of economic justification. In contrast, many of the small-scale projects have done well in securing the needed investment and being completed in an acceptable manner.

Findings highlight the importance of participation by the local community and the private sector in the provision of adequate housing in deteriorated urban zones. To enhance the participation process, it is necessary to clearly identify the role of and the benefits accrued to each stakeholder and make maximum use of the potential resources of the responsible agency along with the housing corporations. There is also a need for public-sector investment in the provision of services/infrastructure and supervision over private-sector performance. Of further note is that the scarcity or inadequacy of housing finance, especially for low-income groups and current renters, is a major issue that precludes inclusiveness of the activities.

Today, the world is facing climate change and global warming. Iran is not exempt from this situation and climate change has many negative effects on all its regions. In particular, these changes have led to successive droughts in the last 15 years. In this research, the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of CC on two villages in the eastern Isfahan province and the responses of the local community and government policies in the face of these changes were investigated using Al-Rish Beck’s “The Risky Society” approach. Observational instruments, semi-structured interviews, and group interviews were used to gather information. Through purposive selection, 47 people (32 men and 15 women) were interviewed, including informed organizations, informed locals, and  villagers.  Grounded theory method was used for data analysis.The result of the analysis was the extraction of 215 concepts, which were reduced to 157 after revision. These concepts were then used to form 35 categories, which resulted in the core category of “Intensified Instability.” The results show that climate change, combined with mismanagement of water resources by government organizations and, to a lesser extent, villagers, has led to negative environmental consequences such as degradation of water, air, and soil resources, resulting in a reduction in cultivated land, loss of livelihoods such as livestock, and reduction in cultivated diversity, followed by economic problems such as an increase in poverty. This has led to a decrease in savings and a sense of economic insecurity. These conditions have also led to cultural issues such as a change in villagers’ lifestyles and a reluctance to live in the village and a turn to urban lifestyles. In addition, the drought and its consequences have also affected the physical and mental health of the people in the region, leading to physical illness and mental discomfort. However, there are some differences between the two villages in terms of social consequences. For example, while there has been out-migration in the village in southern Baraan, the village in northern Baraan has not only not out-migrated, but has actually become receptive to immigrants. It can be concluded that the location of the village and the spirit of participation are the reasons for these differences. The village in North Braan, which has a more favorable climate, has become the residence of the rich people of Isfahan city, and service sector jobs have been created in the village, which has prevented the villagers from migrating. Moreover, the spirit of participation in the management of water resources has been shown in this village.

As one of the cleanest and most economical energy sources, the sun can revolutionize the future of energy and fuel in the world. Therefore, one of the appropriate methods for energy self-sufficiency in the industry of any country is the expansion and use of solar panels.

This study is  applied whose method is descriptive-analytical and based on field studies. The statistical population is Fadavi village in Dashli Borun in Gonbad County with 420 households and a population of 2101 people. The sample size was 210 people using Cochran formula randomly selected from experts, Organia power plant workers and rural households. The reliability of the study was ensured by the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.83 and the validity of the study was ensured by content and eye validity. Finally, the data extracted from the questionnaire were measured and analyzed using Friedman test, Wilcoxon test and regression.

The results of Friedman test determined each point of importance. According to the results of the Wilcoxon test, the economic indicators increased by up to 99% after the establishment of the Organia industry. The result of the regression test, which is consistent with the effect of Organia’s work on the economic conditions of the village houses, shows that the heads of the country are more than mortal and have developed more or less completely and unimpressed.

Human need for energy is continuously increasing and fossil energy sources are decreasing. Considering that the excessive use of fossil fuel threatens the life of creatures. In addition to correcting the current consumption pattern, the use of renewable energy such as solar energy is considered a key solution.

Growing environmental, economic and social problems are forcing governments and policymakers to ensure a sustainable energy future through the use of renewable energy technology. However, there are various obstacles to the development of renewable energy technology. Therefore, based on a qualitative approach and using the grounded theory method, this study investigated the barriers to the adoption of renewable energy technologies in the agricultural sector of Dashtestan county in the south of the country.

The study area consisted of urban farmers, including farmers and gardeners (23 people), who were selected using the random sampling method and interviewed free of charge.

According to the results of the interviews, factors such as lack of energy storage systems, lack of confidence of farmers, financial problems, lack of attention of politicians and planners, inability of farmers to use their professional skills, high cost of starting the system, intermittent The presence and unavailability of energy resources were identified as the main barriers to farmer adoption of renewable energy technology and were grouped into 8 categories, including economic and support barriers, technical and infrastructure barriers, legal and policy barriers,education and skills, technological, social and human barriers, and motivational factors. Finally, these classes were classified into a paradigmatic model based on Strauss and Corbin’s theory to get out of the problem under study.

The results of this study will help energy policymakers and planners to focus their future efforts on the use of renewable energy technologies in the agricultural sector for sustainable energy planning and development.

Urban spaces have the capacity to spatially assemble different and even contradictory forces of the public sphere. The relationships between these contradictory forces, one dominated by power and the other exercised by people, lead citizens to take creative actions to change and transform the structure created in urban spaces. “How can the play of citizens in the public space of the city produce the lived space and what are the consequences?” is the main question of this research. In Lefebvre’s theory of the production of space, space is in a process of dialectical relations between perceived space, conceived space and lived space. Power always tries to cover the merits of the perceived space by its forces and produces the conceived space. In contrast, citizens create the lived space through their creative actions. Citizens can choose the public space as their own playground (place of their play) and construct new situations beyond the formal situations of the space. The concept of play suggests an action in a specific time and place, through established rules built on the core of pleasure, which can also change the formal situation of the space by using the tools unusually and changing and reshaping the rules themselves. In this process, the nature of excitement flows through the game and makes the players return to it more and more. Therefore, the game is one of the creative actions that are able to create new orders and arrangements in the public space to construct the lived space.

The current research is based on an interpretive-critical paradigm, which is based on a phenomenological approach to explore the ways and reasons for which the citizens of Tehran choose to use the perceived space and find it. The method is a documentary study for theoretical concepts and identifying the components and configurations of the concepts. The field study in the open space at the entrance of Bagh-Ferdows includes in-depth observation by the researchers and open interviews with the citizens (the actors) who are actively present in the field and identified using the components and qualitative indicators found in the first step of the documentary study to achieve a novel interpretation of the pleasing actions as well as the critical ones.

Studies done in the case of this research show that citizens in urban spaces play in relation to one aother and the factors of that space in order to create their desired situations. This process of playing can change the territories of the space, foster the process of sociability, specify the demands of marginal groups and represent citizens’ resistance against the order of conceived space.

Concolusion: 

The results suggest that citizens can produce their living space in the urban public space through their games, as the process of creative playing changes the formal situation and realizes the game situation, which is similar to what people do in the production of living space through other actions. In the nightlife of the city, these actions use the possibilities of the lack of surveillance and construct the lived space. The socialization, the specification of the areas forbidden by the power (political - economic forces through the system and socio-cultural through the structure), the creation and exhibition of the desired identity by the citizens, the resistance to the formal order and the leisure are the consequences of the games observed and studied in the given public space.

Spatial inequality in developing countries is an issue of concern to many policy makers and researchers. It may have causes such as regional dualities, the outflow of capital and labor, the geographic concentration of poverty and deprivation, the lack of optimal and voluntary distribution of human resources, etc. Therefore, this study has investigated spatial inequality among the districts of Iran.Spatial inequality means unequal distribution of economic and social opportunities and facilities in space. Geographic space can be discussed in different formats. One of the most important formats, especially on a national scale, is the concept of region. Thus, regional inequality implies an imbalance in the spatial structure of regions and is manifested in differences in living conditions, economic inequalities, and levels of development. A review of the literature on inequality shows that regional social inequality is generally attributed to three main factors: economic development, social policy, and regional policy.

To measure spatial inequality across counties, we used data from the 2016 General Population and H ousing Census and other related findings. According to the 2016 census, the country has 429 counties. Factor analysis was used to weight and combine the indicators and create the spatial inequality. Based on the factor analysis, five factors were formed from economic, social, environmental, population structure and population density, and finally the spatial inequality was created by combining the factors. To show the zoning and leveling of inequality in the counties, Arc Pro software was used.

The results show that there is spatial inequality between the counties. This inequality, especially in economic and social indicators, is such that the counties in the border areas (with the exception of the northern regions) have higher spatial inequality than the counties in the center of the country. The regions with high inequality include the eastern half, especially the southeast and northeast, and then the west, northwest and southwest of the country. Among the indicators, the conditions are in favor of counties in border areas only in the index of population structure status. As for the environmental index, conditions are favorable in the western, northwestern and northern regions of the country.

The results of this research show that we face spatial inequalities between the counties of the country. These inequalities exist in various dimensions such as social, economic, environmental, population structure and population density. Moreover, the regions of the country, which are often the border and peripheral regions of the country, have higher inequalities than the central regions of the country. Also, due to the fact that these areas are among the first emigration areas of the country, there is a need for attention and practical plans to solve the internal spatial inequalities of the country

With increasing urbanization in developing countries, urban poverty has also become an important social issue. The present study was conducted with the aim of explaining the phenomenon of poverty in Tehran through a qualitative, comprehensive and data-oriented research.

The research method used is grounded theory, which belongs to qualitative methods. Data collection techniques included documentation and library methods, direct observation, written records, data recording, and the use of in-depth and semi-structured interviews. Sample selection was initially purposive and continued until theoretical saturation was achieved. In order to select a sample representative of the community under study, efforts were made to include a combination of age, gender, occupational and educational status, and residence in urban neighborhoods as much as possible. Participants included poor households living in the 17th, 18th, and 19th districts of Tehran. Several criteria were considered in the selection of participants, namely: 1. Be head of household; 2. Have lived in the city for at least two years; 3. Have been recognized as needy by residents and social activists in the neighborhoods, and their poverty was verified based on the testimonies of official (charity and aid organizations) and unofficial (residents, businesses, and social activists) agencies.

Based on this study, exclusion from the labor market, which includes all types of unemployment, incomplete and temporary, and low-income informal employment, is the main factor explaining the phenomenon of urban poverty in the city of Tehran. The results show that the urban poor have taken a number of measures to address urban poverty and migration has been one of their measures in the past and in the present. In the past, it was groups and ethnic groups; in recent years, it has been individuals. Due to the weakness of their economic and human capital, they have also been unable to enter the formal labor market, and underemployment of women and child labor are common among them. In the area of housing, there is the model of shared living in small spaces and sharing the appliances and facilities of the place of residence. In the field of treatment, alternative and informal treatment methods are used. 

The results of this research show that unemployment, temporary and unstable work, which is one of the components of exclusion from the labor market, has led to the persistence of the poverty situation in the society studied and to a series of strategies of urban slums aimed at surviving and meeting the minimum needs. Social exclusion is not limited to small environments, but is also related to macro constructions and processes. Therefore, by referring to micro-environments through qualitative research, one can also observe the effects of macro-processes. In the macro dimension, the rapid development and growth of rapid urbanization has led to widespread migration of rural and unemployed villagers to cities, putting additional pressure on the urban labor market. The lack of infrastructure and opportunities for work and employment has led to many immigrants living in a state of subsistence poverty in the cities or on the outskirts of the cities and experiencing all kinds of social exclusion in their daily lives.

The main difference between cooperatives, including agricultural cooperatives, and other commercial companies is the existence of cooperative principles, and the element of member participation in cooperatives plays a very important role in implementing these principles. The purpose of this research is to analyze the participation of members in agricultural cooperatives with emphasis on the principles of cooperatives.

In terms of method, this research is qualitative with an inductive approach. Data collection was done using a focused group discussion method and a discussion paper tool. In order to analyze the data in this research, the qualitative method of thematic analysis was used.

From the perspective of the participants in the research, the factors influencing the participation of members in agricultural cooperatives are: distrust of agricultural cooperatives, low familiarity with cooperatives, low participation of members in agricultural production cooperatives, high participation of members in cooperatives that supply agricultural needs, high participation In traditional agricultural cooperatives and the lack of connection between the laws of cooperatives and the participation of members.

The results of the research showed that stereotypes about cooperatives have a great impact on members' participation. The mentality of people and members towards cooperatives is completely different from the functioning of today's cooperatives. Also, differential participation shows the difference in the amount of participation of members in different cooperatives. Finally, regarding the implementation of the principles of cooperation with agricultural cooperatives, the results showed that the principles of cooperation and the existing laws did not conform to the conditions of agricultural cooperatives in Iran, and these principles and laws in Iran need to be carefully revised to conform to the economic, social and cultural conditions of Iran.

 The increase in technology in the exploitation of natural resources and the increase in consumerism have led to environmental crises that threaten the stability of societies, especially rural societies. Consequently, it is important to evaluate the sustainability of these areas and to examine how resources are consumed and exploited. In the interim, one of the best indicators for evaluating sustainable development which emphasizes the amount of consumption with regard to ecological power, is the ecological footprint index. Thus by using the mentioned index, the present study analyzes the spatial pattern of the ecological footprint at the level of the region in Eslamabad-e-Gharb county.

 In terms of purpose, this research is practical and descriptive-analytical in nature.  Documentary and field methods have been applied to collect information. Based on three factors of natural location, distance from the county center and the number of households, 40 villages were selected from eslamabad-gharb county. Grounded on Cochran's formula, the minimal sample size of 360 household was determined. Using the Proportion formula, the share of each village in the number of questionnaire distributions was determined, To analyze the obtained data, the ecological footprint index was used in 6 factors of energy land, pastureland, arable land, forest land, water areas and built land. Moreover, Moran's i statistic was used to identify the spatial distribution pattern of ecological footprint in the study area, and IDW interpolation was used to zone eco-footprints.

The results showed that 72.5 percent of the 40 investigated villages, equivalent to 29 villages, are in unstable conditions and ecological deficit, and 11 villages have an ecological surplus. Meanwhile, the village of Barf Abad Aliya with -8351.23 global hectares has the largest ecological deficit and the village of Mian-Tang Mansouri with +2042 global hectares has the largest ecological surplus. Also, the local Moran's index identified the spatial pattern of footprint distribution at the county level as a cluster type with high value. Based on the interpolation of IDW, it was found that the northern and southern villages of the county, which often have a mountainous and forest location, are located in the middle and high footprint area, and the middle villages with a plain location have a low and very low footprint.

 The natural location of rural settlements influence their ecological footprint, so mountain and forest villages have a larger footprint than plain villages. This can be seen in the less access of these villages to resources as well as the small area of natural resource areas. On the other hand, the amount of energy consumption in the field of fuel is very high due to the environmental conditions in mountainous areas, which is much less in plain areas. Consequently, mountain and forest villages should be given more attention in resource consumption management and sustainability planning.