مجله تاریخ علم
سال بیستم شماره 2 (پیاپی 33، پاییز و زمستان 1401)

This research has sought to answer the question of what historical period were schools formed in the present form in Iran? Under what social and cultural conditions did these schools emerge? This research has been done by studying and analyzing historical documents and sources. The findings of this research showed that the change from the traditional education system (maktab) to the school-based system in Iran indicated revolutionary changes in educational insights, methods, and worldviews in Iran. The first need for new schools was formed after the Iran-Russia wars. It was for the first time during this period that the idea of the backwardness of Iranians in the strongest possible form, i.e. military imperialism and the loss of the best lands of Iran by the Russian forces, showed itself. Before that, the purpose of the maktab was to teach the alphabet, recite the Quran, and teach religion. Traditional education (maktab) was for the development of the hereafter, this world. They did not lead to the material development of life. The new schools that had western roots went the opposite way. They were created for the development of material life. New courses that strengthened material life skills were all included in academic courses for the first time with the emergence of new schools. Finally, the Iranian society, which was on the path of development at the end of the Qajar era, overthrew the traditional education system, which was an anti-development institution, and gradually replaced it with a school-based education system that developed material life skills.

The process of expanding new schools in the Qajar period was linked to political, cultural, and social issues. One can never ignore the sending of student groups to Europe, the ongoing wars between Iran and Russia, and finally the victory of the constitutional revolution in the development of new schools. With the start of new schools, the need to produce appropriate books was also felt, and the people of culture tried to organize this important matter in every era. In this article, I have tried to check the date of compilation of one of these books and reveal the changes made. My research focuses mostly on natural history books, and among them, I want to emphasize the theory of evolution and how it entered and expanded into textbooks from the beginning until now. By examining the documents, it can be shown that despite the serious challenge of some currents in Iran with the theory of evolution, this topic is mostly mentioned in the books; Although the narratives of each period reflect the political and cultural conditions governing scientific and cultural institutions.

Since the development of the Modern Sciences in the seventeenth century, religious leaders used them instrumentally to propagate their religion. Italian Christian scholars sent Pietro Della Valle (1586-1652) to achieve the original text of the Book of Jacob. They were curious to know if it is possible to interpret the verses about solid heavens in order to be conciliated with Tycho Brahe’s elimination of the orbs. He and other Christian missionaries brought modern astronomy to the East as an instrument for propaganda. As a reaction, Confucianists, Buddhists, Taoists, and Hinduist found several signs of modern astronomy in their religious texts. In their turn, the Muslim ulama presented the idea of the “scientific miracle” of the Quran. This idea became the source of inspiration for the new genre of the scientific exegesis of the Quran in the Islamic world. As a Shiite scholar, Hibat al-Dīn Shahristānī (1883–1967) put forward this idea about Quran and Shiite hadiths. Several Shiite great ulama, but not all of them, received this idea with the agreement. Muḥammad-Husayn Kāshif al-Ghiṭāʾ as a modernist Shiite scholar accepted heliocentrism and rejected old Ptolemaic astronomy. Nevertheless, he held that the literal understanding of the Quranic verses is more compatible with old astronomy than modern one. So he didn’t agree with the idea of a scientific miracle. In his opinion, only through a true interpretation, one may conciliate holy texts with modern science. He also accepted a non-materialistic account of the theory of evolution except for humans. He knew that even a literal interpretation of some hadiths may not be compatible with any of new and old astronomy. He suggested rejecting these hadiths or interpreting them metaphorically. These two suggestions should be applied to the hadiths about an anthropomorphic account of eclipses or the stability of the Earth on cow horns or a fish. Here I will examine Khāshif al-Ghiṭāʾ’s several works as well as some phrases of his al-Firdaws al-Aʿlā. It shows that he found a way to a new interpretation of the verses about God’s “chair and throne” (Kursī wa ʿArsh) by denying Ptolemaic solid orbs.

The present article is a historical study about the relevance of new natural sciences and the concept of progress in Qajar period. By examining the books of natural history (Geology and Biology) and the books of "world history' written in this period, we show that first of all, these sciences are an extension of each other in terms of theory and method, which transformed the concept of time in history into progressive, cumulative, improving and evolutionary time, which is inevitable and without human intervention operate in nature. The law that was referred to as the "natural law of progression' and oversees the progression and all-round flourishing of intellect, perceptions, senses, law, organization and collective institutions such as family, kinship, economy and state. Second, the theoretical principles of these sciences were applied to the "real history" of societies, and societies were classified in an evolutionary spectrum with a gradual transition from "savagery" to "civilization". Thirdly, the new natural science, biology by explaining the human eye and physics by explaining the light and the way of seeing objects, explained human vision by comparing it to photography technology as the act of taking pictures and taking objective images. seeing the human being gained objectivity that placed the historian in position of impartial objective observer who, while denying the "historian's position", records objectively all the things that happen or should happen by necessity. History was understood as a mirror, notebook, tabula, phonograph, screen, photo, cinema and canvas that represent what happens in nature in the form of objective images. Objectivity, similarity and repetition of the events of human societies in the path of progress was the dominant way of looking at history in this period, which is become possible with the new natural sciences.

In another article, we discussed the productive moods and the conclusions of mixed ḥaqīqī-khārijī syllogisms and proved each of them. In this article, however, we aim to comprehensively examine the sterile moods and unprovable conclusions, and demonstrate their sterility and unprovability through suitable counterexamples. By doing so, we will achieve the desired goal of Shams al-Dīn Samarqandī's research program, which began in his books Qisṭās al-afkār and its self-commentary Sharḥ al-Qisṭās, but which was left unfinished without reaching a final conclusion and which, surprisingly, has not been pursued by subsequent logicians. We then compare the set of the productive/sterile moods-mixes as well as provable/unprovable conclusions, and, we extract some general and specific results deductively. This research has also raised a plethora of open questions, some of which are summarized at the end of the article in the hope that their difficulties will be resolved and their answers will be found with the help of other scholars

Every great philosopher, especially every epistemologist, has been concerned with perception, notably vision. This is because perception, especially vision, is the most basic, , way of contact with the outside world, and all our cognitive states are somehow related to it. Theories of perception, which center around vision, found their way from the Greco-Roman tradition into the Islamic tradition. Considerations on the matter begin with Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq and continue with the biggest turn in the history of the problem by Avicenna and Ibn al-Haytham, until we reach al-Suhrawardī's turn. He presents a completely philosophical theory, refines his perception (vision) theory, and puts aside every bit of physics, physiology, and geometry from it. In this inquiry, we illustrate, using an analytical and historical approach, the theory of perception (vision) in Islamic world scholars from Hunain to al-Suhrawardī and show its historical development until it becomes purely philosophical. Meanwhile, the role of the sciences in this movement and the role of the interaction between science and philosophy (or other sciences) in the development of knowledge can be seen

The era of Seljuk of Kerman, especially at the same time as the rule of some of its statesmen, is one of the important eras that this country has gone through. The government was established by the arrival of the Seljuk King Qavurt in Kerman around 442 AH and continued after him among his successors until around 583 AH. During this period, the Seljuk rulers and their agents brought changes in various political, economic, social, and cultural fields of Kerman. But what will be specifically analyzed in the present study is examining the diseases of the sultans of this regime and the treatment methods used by the doctors of this era. The present study, using the method of argumentation and historical logic, aims to briefly introduce the Seljuk government of Kerman in the first step, and in the second and most important step, the diseases that penetrated the Seljuk court and the treatment methods of the court physicians, to cure these diseases, to analyze In this regard, various historical and medical sources, as well as new research in the form of books and articles, were used. The findings of this study indicate that the doctors in the Seljuk court of Kerman used the herbal medicines and minerals available in Kerman to treat their patients. Some of the doctors of this era, especially Afzal al-Din Abu Hamid Kermani, put a lot of emphasis on prevention and they consider it preferable to treatment