پژوهشنامه مکتب های ادبی
پیاپی 23 (پاییز 1402)

Realism is one of the schools of the nineteenth century that changed the foundations of fiction by changing the principles of story writing. Unlike the Classical and Romantic schools, Realism considers man as a social being and examines the relationship between man and society. The realist writer narrates the lives of typical characters and the effects of human-environment interactions in simple language. Influenced by this school, Iranian writers also portrayed social issues in their works. Revolution and the 8-year war are of the most important socio-political issues in Iran, which influenced Iranian prose literature. Using library resources, this research analyzes the realistic components of the two memoirs "I Am Alive" and "From Eighteen Months and Seven Days". Findings suggest that language in both narratives is simple and close to slang. The difference is that the element of language and dialect, which is part of the culture of a region, is more visible in "From Eighteen Months and Seven Days". Abad mixes simple and metaphorical language. Her metaphorical language does not undermine the basis of the realist language in the narrative. Both Abad and Abnous portray the social issues people struggled with during the war as well as their different reactions to war. Examining components such as characterization, language, and staging in "I am alive" and "From Eighteen Months and Seven Days" reveals that both works belong to the school of Realism.

This article tries to use semiotics to study the covers of The Blind Owl, Tangsir, The Tale of Baba Sobhan and Shazdeh Ehtjab in a descriptive-analytical way to shed light on the interplay of the basic elements of painting and literary texts. Because color has the capacity to communicate, nonverbally, with the most active human sense – the sense of sight – it can help us understand the textual space by conveying thoughts without speaking. The artistic use of color plays a special role in creating a creative space for the textual content; it can also challenge the audience’s assumptions by stimulating their emotions and encouraging them to read the book. Therefore, examining the cover of literary texts – the space of color display which is used as a cover for the verbal world – can shed light on the connection between the color of the cover and the textual layers as well as hidden concepts of the text. Analysis of the elements of color in the above-mentioned novels reveals that in some of these texts, the color of the cover is not just a product of the designer’s imagination (a decorative element). Rather, it has a symbolic function and interacts with other paratexts, especially the title, theme and characters; it also plays a main role in the process of production of meaning. In other texts, however, the color serves only an aesthetic function and is used to attract the audience – without having a meaningful connection to the theme.

The present article studies the dialogic factors in Simin Behbahani’s poems (1306-1393) based on Mikhail Bakhtin’s dialogism. Behbahani, one of the founders of Neo-Persian ghazal, uses her poems to communicate with her audience through presenting a fresh view of human beings and society. To achieve this aim, she uses modern language and narrative and fictional expressions, presenting her dialogues in different ways to introduce polyphony to her poetry. In this article, we try to use an analytical-descriptive method to answer these fundamental questions: what techniques cause polyphony in Simin Behbahani's lyric poems and what effect do the poet's poetic themes have in this regard? We argue that in her love poems, Simin uses her poetic individuality to speak to her lover in simple and fluent language, and to explain her romantic relationships in great detail. Furthermore, by dealing with romantic-social, domestic and political-social themes, and especially criticizing the situation of women, and by using techniques such as narration, conversation monologues, and through the use of intertextuality, rhetorical propositions, grotesque and carnival, she has established an emotional connection with the elements around her and has provided the conditions for the presence of the "other" in her poetry to create a polyphonic atmosphere as opposed to the monologic atmosphere of traditional poetry.

The present research aims to study how the affordances of irony (structural irony) lead to the creation of the style of grotesque (according to Philip Thomson’s theory) in Jean Teulé’s Eat Him If You Like [original title in French, Mangez-le Si Vous Voulez, translated into Persian as Adam-kharan]. Teulé manages to create moments that seem humorous to begin with, but turn into scenes of threat, horror, and torment. The main question is how such a situation arises and what role does irony play in the development of the style of the text. Accordingly, in the present research we have used a descriptive-analytical method to study excerpts from Eat Him if You Like to delineate the influence of structural irony on the creation of the style of grotesque in this novel. For this purpose, first a general definition of irony and grotesque is presented and then different types of irony and their functions which are conducive to the creation of the style of grotesque in this novel are discussed. Findings of the research indicate that in this novel, different types of irony such as dramatic, situational, cosmic and tragic, create two-fold, reversed, unwanted and imposed situations as well as a bleak, disturbing and disgusting atmosphere, which lead to the development of grotesque in the text.

In literary studies, metaphor is considered to be the basic element of creativity and a characteristic expression of the author's artistic individuality. Metaphor can be used by writers in various social contexts to support the basic statements and beliefs of a specific ideology or point of view. Fauconnier and Turner raised a new issue in the field of cognitive linguistics and metaphor. They proposed that mental spaces are small conceptual packages that are created in the human mind when speaking or thinking and, therefore, form the basis of understanding. In Persian poetry, Parvin E'tesami's poems have a greater suitability and capacity for the application of this theory because of their metaphorical language and because they are free from the limitations governing some formal types of ancient literature. Therefore, all the metaphors of Parvin E'tesami's poems were analyzed to lay bare the metaphors which constructed the mental spaces. Findings indicate that the conceptual domains of Parvin's metaphors are divided into six groups: ontological metaphors (phenomenal or material), characterizing metaphors, directional metaphors for positive and negative emotions, and structural metaphors (abstract phenomena, body parts, the concept of life, natural phenomena). In general, it can be said that in case of all constructed metaphors, the use of conceptual areas in the construction of metaphors to convey specific meanings to the audience has been done in a targeted manner.

The notion of bureaucracy is derived from the French word Burecratie, which is made up of two words: Bureau meaning desk and cratie meaning power. In 1759, Vincent de Gournay introduced this term to the socio-political terminology of France. Divansalary is the Persian equivalent of this term which refers to an organization which operates within the framework of law. In his Shabneshini-e-Bashokouh, a collection of twelve short stories, Sa’edi centralizes Bureaucratic life and order to conduct a psychopathology of clerks using an ironic and humorous language. Through characterizing his fictional characters as psychopathic, belittled, and illusioned people, Sa’edi criticizes the framework of Iranian official order in the late 1330s. In the present study, we aim to examine the author’s individual ideology in his creation of his critical attitude toward clerical life through Shabneshini-e-Bashokouh, Khabha-e-Pedaram, Dayere-e-Dargozashtegan and Mofattesh through processing and analyzing the fictional space. To this purpose, in order to analyze the story space, we have used Jean Weisgerber’s theories which are based on the mutual connection between human and space. Weisgerber believes that space should not be regarded as just a framework or décor in a literary work. It should rather be considered as a main character in the story. He believes it’s only through seeing story space as a character and analyzing it that we can get to the real meaning of a literary piece.