نشریه پژوهش های ادیانی
پیاپی 22 (پاییز و زمستان 1402)

In ancient Iranian myths, many kings are named who possessed many attributes. Among them Kay Khosrow was distinctive as innumerable attributes are mentioned for him, which depict him as a human with “Farrah” (Divine Splendor) and a perfect human. One of his main characteristics setting him apart from other legendary kings of ancient Iran was the story of his eternity. There is no trace of this part of the story in the Avesta, but it still depicts the period of his monarchy as brilliant. The story of eternity is more prominent in other religious texts of Zoroastrianism. In the myths of ancient Iran, many kings were mentioned who had many features and characteristics.One of the most important features and characteristics as well as his differences with other mythical kings of ancient Iran is the story of his immortality. We do not find any trace of this part of the story in the Avesta, but there we will find his reign very brilliant, and in other Zoroastrian religious texts this story appears and has a greater effect.

This article describes and analyzes the archaeological findings at the Abpa site, situated in the Farashband plains, approximately 172 kilometers west of Shiraz. Notably, the site yielded 120 fragmented equine figurines. A distinct feature of these artifacts is the breakages and cracks concentrated in the head and external organs, which seem intentional. Upon careful analysis of the gathered evidence, a discernible behavioral pattern emerges. This pattern implies a structured ritual or ceremony characterized by the intentional breaking and subsequent burial of clay figurines. Considering the proximity of the site to the town of Farashband, located on a major transportation route connecting Firuzabad and Bushehr port, and the historical attribution of the town's construction to Bahram V, the Sassanid king, this article delves into the archaeological evidence. The interpretation of this evidence extends to the birth and dissemination of the Sassanid ideology and its pertinent discourse, drawing upon the Avesta to indicate possible theological dimensions of the putative rituals related to Abpa archeological deposit.

The issue of Ahriman’s knowledge versus Ahura Mazda’s knowledge from the perspective of Zurvanism and its comparison with Scandinavian beliefs and traditions has not been examined so far. According to Zurvanism, Ahriman was an unwanted child of Zurvan, portrayed as dumb, stupid, and unintelligent, while Ahura Mazda, his favored child, was knowledgeable of secrets, enlightened, absolutely aware, and omniscient. In ancient Scandinavian texts and traditions, Ahriman or the demon is depicted as knowledgeable of secrets, smart, inventive, and skilled in instrument-making, such that his wisdom occasionally resolves the problems of gods. The present article adopts a critical view, relying on evidence extracted from Ferdowsi’s Shahnama (Book of Kings) and other ancient sources to explore the Zurvanist perspective on Ahriman’s knowledge. Drawing upon a verification methodology and employing content analysis, we initially elucidate the characteristics of Ahriman concerning knowledge and awareness of secrets in Iranian ancient heroic texts in comparison to Shahnama. Moreover, we explore the connections that these characteristics have with Ahriman’s knowledge in Scandinavian texts and traditions. This research provides a comparative study of the texts and verses that evidently attest to Ahriman’s knowledge in ancient Iranian and Scandinavian beliefs. Finally, we conclude that Ahriman was not unintelligent, as Zurvan the deity predicted. Given the evidence at hand, Ahriman possessed a significant share of knowledge, foresight, awareness, and knowledge of the future. Furthermore, in ancient Scandinavian texts and traditions, Ahriman is not portrayed as dumb and stupid; instead, he presents himself as knowledgeable of secrets, intelligent, inventive, skillful in instrument making, and at times, a problem-solver. Overall, it may be said that, considering the variety of his creation and intelligent acts, Ahriman’s knowledge surpasses that of the Scandinavian demon.

The Druze is a branch of Fatimid Ismailism that emerged in the early fifth century AH. While certain beliefs of this Ismaili sect differ from Islamic and Shiite doctrines, they bear a significant resemblance to Manichean beliefs, suggesting possible influence from this Iranian religion. Research indicates that the division of the Druze community into the ignorant and the wise is reminiscent of the Manichean division of society into catechumens (hearers or auditors) and the elect, and their duties (khīshkārī) also exhibit similarities. This article primarily explores the similarities between the two classes of the Druze and Manichean communities, and then delves into the factors that may have contributed to these influences. The research method used in this article is historical-comparative. In conclusion, based on the comparable findings and evidence of influence, it is likely that the Druze community borrowed its social structure from the Manichean system of social classes.

Mazdaism, designated as the official religion during the Sasanian era in Iran, encompasses an inner illuminative dimension intricately connected to cosmology and the world's structure on one hand, and individual moral obligations on the other. In the era marked by the mingling of light and darkness, individuals across social classes adhere to their assigned duties, preventing the emergence of chaos, class divisions, and the coveting of others' possessions. These duties manifest hierarchically in the realms of "Menog" and "Getig," forming the focal point of this research. The primary inquiry revolves around unraveling the foundations of the world's structure and individuals' moral responsibilities as outlined in Book Three of Denkard. Additionally, the study delves into the roles of the nation-guardian and followers of Mazdaism in confronting the chaotic deeds of Ahriman. The findings indicate that the world's creator, the guardian of the nation, and its people, united in a fundamental chain, share a singular objective—overcoming Ahriman. This pursuit involves understanding the extent of "Divine Splendor" (Farrah Yazdani) within each individual, serving as a means to repel Ahriman from the inherently pure world.

Meditation is a shared concept in both Buddhist mysticism and Islamic mysticism, where it is referred to as dhyana or jhana. In Islamic mysticism, meditation holds a crucial role in the journey of mysticism and is a fundamental tenet of practical mysticism, involving seclusion and dhikr under specific conditions. Similarly, in Buddhist mysticism, dhyana has long been employed for the cultivation of concentration and mental purification, aiming at attaining peace and liberation. Consequently, dhyana stands out as the primary ritualistic practice for Buddhists.With the influx of various cultures and rituals into our society in recent years, including the widespread propagation of meditation, the significance of this practice has grown. This article employs an analytical approach to conduct a comparative study of the concept, nature, methods, objectives, and practices of meditation in Islamic mysticism, particularly within the Kubrawiya order, and dhyana in Buddhist mysticism, specifically in Mahayana. Through this exploration, we aim to uncover both the similarities and differences that exist among the diverse dimensions of meditation and dhyana.

A challenge faced by the ancient culture of Mesopotamia was the possibility or impossibility of interaction or communication between natural and supernatural beings. While the present article assumes its possibility based on available evidence, it employs the descriptive-analytic method to identify various forms of revelation within the mythical Mesopotamian culture. The research findings indicate that in Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian myths, revelation manifested as an exchange or spiritual transaction bridging the gap between the natural and supernatural worlds. It served as a conduit for communication and the conveyance of desires, secrets, and news from deities to earthly beings, including both human and nonhuman entities. In this context, revelation often took the form of soliloquy and sometimes that of mutual conversation, presenting itself through experiences such as the soul’s journey, true dreams, auditory perceptions, and prophesies. It appears that the various forms of Mesopotamian revelations gradually influenced Semitic religions, likely influenced by the proximity of the Sumerians. Therefore, an exploration of the revelatory aspects of Mesopotamian myths becomes crucial for a deeper understanding of the nature of revelation in more contemporary religions.

The Gospel of Thomas, a recent discovery within the Nag Hammadi Library, has captured the attention of scholars in recent decades. While some Church leaders consider it heretical, most researchers regard it as an authentic text from early Christianity, containing genuine words attributed to Jesus the Nazarene and his esoteric teachings. This unofficial gospel, despite its similarities to official Christian texts, reveals fundamental theological differences. In this study, we utilize passages from the Gospel of Thomas to highlight one such distinction concerning the concept of the "Kingdom." To clarify the notion of the "Kingdom," this gospel employs various analogies, including mustard, fire, dough, and shepherd. Unlike the official gospels, it asserts that the Kingdom is not an apocalyptic entity but rather a non-historical concept—something present in the here and now, something internal. The Gospel of Thomas posits that the Kingdom belongs to the Father and is accessible to the poor who earnestly pursue the goal of self-awareness. These are wayfarers who, akin to children, trample selfishness beneath their feet, uniting the inner and outer realms to overcome internal conflicts and achieve unity.

New spiritualism is a worldwide phenomenon influenced by religious, political, and cultural developments across the globe. Existing studies on the origins of this phenomenon often examine factors such as advancements in communication technology, the impact of modernity, intellectual and doctrinal challenges faced by established religions, and collective demands for the protection of freedom of belief and religion. However, these analyses typically operate on a macro level, overlooking the individual agents themselves. In this article, we present a micro-level analysis, focusing on a specific facet of the new religious movement—the inclination towards Eckankar in Tehran. Our approach draws on deprivation theory as we delve into the minds of the agents to gain a nuanced understanding of why there is a leaning towards this particular movement. Unlike previous studies, we concentrate on the individual experiences of those drawn to Eckankar, conducting in-depth interviews and exploring available sources. The data reveals that these agents perceived a gap and a sense of deprivation in at least one aspect of their individual and social lives. Consequently, their conversion to Eckankar can be seen as an attempt to address and compensate for this feeling of deprivation.

It took centuries for the Christian Church to acquiesce to functional reduction and distinction, relinquishing many of the responsibilities it traditionally held to civil and social institutions. This phenomenon is often referred to as secularization in the literature on religious studies. Initially criticized by Christian theologians as a challenge, it did not take long for many theologians to present evidence from within Christianity and provide justifications for it. Some Christian theologians, especially Protestant theologians, offered views in response to this significant challenge that aligned more closely with the views of scholars in the humanities and the findings of empirical sciences. Harvey Cox is among the theologians who approached the issue with such a perspective in the second half of the twentieth century. In his major work, The Secular City, he examines the process of secularization from three perspectives: the Bible, Church, and God. To substantiate his claims, Cox occasionally harks back to the era of the Christian Fathers and sometimes cites the perspectives of contemporary theologians. He endeavors to demonstrate that secularization is not only compatible with the Bible but that its roots can indeed be traced therein. In fact, Cox aims to bolster Christianity and foster understanding between modernity and secularization by proposing a new form of theology, which could be characterized as a secular theology.

"Dark night" serves as a metaphor for the soul’s progression towards God, as utilized by John of the Cross. He employs this metaphor to illustrate the various stages of the soul’s journey towards God, akin to mystical stages in other spiritual systems. The findings of this article suggest that, according to John of the Cross, the "dark night" symbolizes the soul's transformative path toward God. It serves as a means to elucidate the soul’s transformative journey, marked by spiritual transcendence and union with God. John delves into two aspects of the soul’s journey: humanity's quest for God and the divine pursuit of humanity, presenting an overarching activity-passivity dichotomy in each dimension of the journey. This transformation unfolds through a four-part structure: first, the active night of the senses, ascending Mount Carmel; second, the active night of the soul, also ascending Mount Carmel; third, the passive night of the senses; fourth, the passive night of the soul within the "dark night." In Book I, John delineates the "negative" state of deprivation. The dark night represents a crucial step in relinquishing attachments and embarking on a path toward divine reunion, involving a journey on a dark path shrouded in indistinct elements. The soul's connection during this night occurs independently of sensory aid, and the dryness and vacuums within the night are viewed as a means to comprehend both God and the soul

For Spinoza, religion is a universal and meta-ethnic system actualized for all people through obedience to God. He delineates the seven principles of faith in this context. Spinoza contends that religious doctrines should be simple, minimal, and rooted in history and language. Given his belief that human nature is predominantly influenced by emotions rather than reason, he asserts that religion must be initially reclaimed and ultimately democratized to rescue humanity. According to Spinoza, the key to salvaging most humans lies in rendering religion obedient by distinguishing it from philosophy. Thus, he advocates for the democratization of theology, leading to a moderation of the political authority of religion and a strengthening of the country's political sovereignty. Spinoza's redefined concept of religion is fundamentally democratic, fostering compatibility between his theology and politics. This distinctive characteristic paves the way for the attainment of freedom for individuals and society. This article aims to explore Spinoza's alternative philosophical interpretation of religion and its theological implications within this framework.