نشریه پژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران
پیاپی 39 (زمستان 1402)

Piranshahr Plain contains evidence of almost continuous occupation of human populations from prehistoric times to the present. The popularity of the plain stems from the existence of permanent rivers such as Little Zab and its fertile soil suitable for agriculture. In recent years, due to the control of the boundary waters, several dams have been constructed, including Kani Shinka in West Azerbaijan Province, Iran. Girdi Sheytan is one of the five archaeological sites excavated as part of the rescue archaeological plan related to Kani Shinka Dam. The primary goal of the excavation was the preliminary evaluation of the site’s strata to develop a long-term plan in case there was a need for rescue excavation. Hence, a stratigraphic trench was dug in the higher part of the mound, and as a result, it was found that the mound contains more than three meters of archaeological deposits, including the Parthian and Chalcolithic periods. The trench revealed that Girdi Sheytan could be one of the major sites of the Dalma Culture in northwestern Iran. Although the site was originally excavated as a rescue project, the main questions of the present study included: what cultural periods does the site represent? What is the importance of the identified periods, including the Dalma Culture? The examination of the potsherds recovered from the Dalma strata showed that Girdi Sheytan contains most of the types associated with the Dalma Culture. Furthermore, the discovery of Pisdeli-style sherds among them makes it possible to study the transitional stage of this culture. In this article, while presenting the stratigraphy of the area, an attempt has been made to introduce and classify the obtained findings, especially pottery. The preliminary results of excavation at Girdi Sheytan implied that this area was one of the most significant settlements related to the Dalma Culture in the south of Lake Urmia. 

Since the invention of seals up until now, the Glyptic on them have passed down different styles in different communities, so that the images may be investigated in terms of economic, administrative, and cultural issues, and the researchers may understand the development and technical progress of the art of engraving seals in the communities during the eras that such seals were used. Since the late 4th millennium and the beginning of the third 3rd millennium BC, the basis for establishing civilizations in Iran was prepared, almost at the same time as Mesopotamia. The artistic styles of imaging and glyptic seals of this period have drawn too much attention and were so effective and important in identifying the culture of this land. Susa is one of the centers that has provided researchers with archaeology and cultural data about this period. The seals and sealing obtained from archaeological excavations in Susa show the existence of different styles in the illustration of seals from this period of Iranian cultural history. The goal of the present study is to study some selected seals of the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC of Susa and compare them in terms of function according to the iconography of patterns. Moreover, we try to answer this question: “Does the iconography of the selected seals show an aspect of their function in a special area? (economic, social, and cultural)?” and “could we identify special persons or the social levels of the community in the direction of using such seals in the study and compare the seals patterns?”. The study was done using an analytical approach and the museum-library comparative studies method, and has yielded fruitful answers to the relevant questions.

The southeast region of Iran, especially the Hirmand civilization area, played a key role in regional and inter-regional trade during the late 4th and 3rd millennia BC. During this period, we witness the formation of large urban centers with numerous related settlements, workshops, and specializations, followed by administrative management, and social and economic complexity. So far, many archaeological studies have been conducted in this region, but little has been done to study administrative management systems based on archaeological evidence. The Department of Archaeology at Zabul University conducted six seasons of fieldwork at Tepe Taleb Khan in the framework of the student’s educational excavations. As a result, and due to the fact that this mound is a representative of the Hirmand Civilization, the recovered evidence helped us to examine the cultural, social, and economic aspects of this civilization. Ample archaeological evidence related to administrative management was documented at the site. Here, an attempt is made to read such evidence that was recovered in the fifth and sixth seasons of excavation. According to the objectives, the main questions are as follows: What was the nature of administrative-related evidence that was recovered from Tepe Taleb Khan? And what are their cultural significance? During the excavations, numerous pieces of evidence related to accounting and administrative management were found, including seals, sealing-related material, and tokens, which could reflect social hierarchy in the region during the third millennium BC. In addition, the production of such various materials was controlled by the elites. In this research, the administrative structure of the Hirmand civilization was studied within the framework of the administrative management system. The archaeological findings obtained from Tepe Talebkhan include seals, sealing, tokens, bullae, and numerical clay tablets. They could collectively be considered as important evidence related to the management and administrative systems, correlated to what happened in the related settlement of Shahr-i Sukhta during the third millennium BC.

In terms of archaeological studies, Gilan Province is considered as one of the most important and influential regions of the Iranian Plateau during the first millennium BC. One of the sites of this cultural area is Pila Qala (Pileh Qaleh) in Rudbar in the northeast of Nesfi Village, whose archaeological studies dates to the excavations of Negahban in 1961. During the excavation of this mound, which has been introduced as one of the mounds related to Marlik in the first millennium BC, 17 archaeological deposits dating from the second and first millennia BC to the newer periods were recorded. The site even covers the Sassanian and Islamic periods up to the 5th century AH. Even though the potteries of the first millennium BC documented in Pila Qala have previously been studied based on typology and classification, no laboratory studies like petrographic and mineralogical analysis have been done so far. This article is dedicated to the petrographic analysis of nine potsherds related to the first millennium BC in Pila Qala with the aim of examining construction technique and mineralogical composition. Petrographic results showed that, except in one case, all the potsherds had non-carbonate compounds (clay) and used igneous rocks and related minerals as temper. In terms of texture, two silty, or fine-grained and coarse-grained textures could be seen. Excessive use of igneous rocks for temper suggests that these types of rocks were readily available and that the potters were familiar with the properties of igneous rocks, such as their strength. In the case of pottery, the temperature was close to 800 degrees Celsius, and only the samples without calcite experienced a firing temperature slightly higher than 800 degrees Celsius.

Sassanid dynasty mainly known as a religious government that tried to develop Zoroastrianism through Iran. Religious structures are among the most outlined archaeological evidence, generally known as “Chahar Taqi”. Despite of vast studies about Sassanid religious architecture, during recent half century, there are ambiguities about excavated Sassanid religious sites, including religious function, and relation to the three sacred fires. The site A of Bandian Dargaz, was excavated during late 20th century, is one of the most important Sassanid sites at northeastern Iran, for architectural spaces and modeling. It was suggested as a Bahram V’s sanctuary. Later, the suggestion changed to a lord house or a burial complex. The authors attempt to present better understanding of the architectural identity and function of site A, considering comparing the D architectural space of Bandian, known as fire temple, to similar architectures and adaption to Zoroastrian rites. The most significant question is the function of Architecture D of Bandian Site A, in relation to the triad sacred fires, and any relevant application. Consequently, what was the function of Bandian Site A, considering the function of Architecture D? Methodologically, present paper follows descriptive-analytical method, while it has a fundamental nature. The data collected in a bibliographic and field work, which compare the sites in filed, use disseminated reports, and adaptation architectural spaces to Zoroastrian rites. Comparison of “T” form platform of Space D to the features of Space B of Takht-i-Suleiman, and internal features of the modern Zoroastrian Yazišngāh, architectural limitation for keeping fire except Ātaš Dādgāh, and finally conditions relevant to the Zoroastrian Yazišngāh can indicate Space D of Bandian as Yazišngāh, whereas the fire was the third sacred Ātaš Dādgāh.  Present paper is significant for a new presentation of the identity of Bandian Dargaz complex, and revelation of a Sassanid family Fire Temple.

The institutions of religion and state had a deep connection during the Sasanian period. Fire temples played an important role in national unity with governmental support throughout Iran, aiding the central government by conducting religious ceremonies. Fire altars, as part of the Sasanian fire temples, were essential for worship and one of the most important tools of worship in Zoroastrianism, serving as the place and throne of the great god; therefore, they are considered among the most sacred parts of fire temples. Sasanian fire altars varied in shape and material, serving different purposes. Most Sasanian fire altars were made of stone or gypsum, with a few cases made of clay. Some fire altars were cone-shaped with spoon or simple designs. An interesting point to note is that in the province of Fars (including the present-day provinces of Fars and Bushehr, and parts of the neighboring areas) during the Sasanian period, all discovered fire altars were made of stone. Except for a few cases possibly dedicated to Azar-Bahram, all the other discovered fire temples had gypsum fire altars. With this description, there may be a specific meaning hidden in the choice of fire altar material during the Sasanian period. The question raised here is about the geographical location of fire temples in relation to the material of fire altars whether a clear connection could be established between the Sasanian-Period Fars and the construction materials of fire altars or not. This fundamental research was conducted by examining field data, archaeological studies, accidental discoveries from various locations, and utilizing library information. Additionally, one of the known types of fire altars, in the form of a curtain, is depicted on some Sasanian coins. Ultimately, it seems that since Fars was the seat of the Sasanian Empire, they displayed fire on stone fire altars.

In the minting of the first Sasanian coins, the details of the designs, faces, figures, and arrays of the king were carefully considered. In this research, the content of a gold coin from the time of King Shapur I (241-272 AD) has been investigated. The shape of the Shah’s face is different compared to other coins minted during Shapur’s time, which shows weakness and withering. There is also a three-horned spear in the hands of two figures around the fire pit on the back of the coin. Dihim’s attachment to Shapur’s foot is one of the important points of the studied coin. For a better understanding of Shapur’s face, the verses of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, which narrates the end of Shapur’s life, have been used. Studies have shown that the image on the studied coin shows the sick face of the king at the end of his life, which is confirmed by referring to the poems of Shahnameh. The three-horned spear on the back of the coin as a symbol of Shiva and the hyacinth of the Kushan religion is a sign of the king’s power and his successes, especially in the battle against the Kushans. It could be said that the three-pronged spear in the hands of the king and Ahura Mazda, the guardian of the hearth and the sacred fire, is a reminder of the submission of the Kushan religion to the Iranian religion, and Dihim is its symbol. From the Sassanid kings, along with a three-pronged spear, fire, crescent, and moon, meaning connection and friendship with Ahura Mazda and the gods Mehr and Anahita. Also, the similarity of the faces of the king and Ahura Mazda shows the same claim that the early Sassanid kings considered themselves to be of Yazdani race and face.

The decorative motifs of gravestones reflect cultural, social and religious conditions, which are manifested in the form of different motifs. Studying the visible and hidden qualities of historical cemeteries is very important to understand the worlds and relationships governing past societies. In this research, which was carried out using the field and library data collection methods and written using descriptive-analytical method, the motifs and arrays on the tombstones of the historical cemeteries of Mahabad city were described, classified, designed, documented, and analyzed. The aim of this article is to understand the importance, and political, social and religious status of the city of Mahabad during the Islamic period by relying on written sources and archaeological evidence, including historical cemeteries. So far, no targeted archaeological survey has been conducted to identify and study the material that introduces these works. As a result, the study of the historical cemeteries of this region could depict the importance of this type of works in the archaeological studies of the Islamic period in Mahabad city and especially in Mukuriyan Kurdistan. The tombstones of the historical cemeteries of Mahabad as an example in the form of a statistical community, are comparable in terms of time and morphology with the tombstones of Mukuriyan Kurdistan and other regions of Iran, including Ardabil and Luristan. In this article, we try to answer these questions: Who were the prominent people buried in these cemeteries? And, what role or position did they play in the history of this region? And in the study of the literary inscriptions and the rich engravings of the tombstones of Mahabad cemeteries, in terms of the variety and quality of the works, what important cultural and social results of their era do they tell? The findings of the research indicate that most of the historical tombstones in Mahabad belonged to people with a high social status in the Mukuriyan region. 

The subject of the end of Shams Tabrizi’s career has attracted researchers for a long time. In recent decades, it has also attracted the attention of international cultural societies. Since different locations have been proposed as the tomb of Shams Tabrizi through the years, so how to analyze the attribution of these locations to Shams Tabrizi could be considered an issue. Regarding the cultural and tourism importance of the Shams Tabrizi tomb at the national and international levels, determining the location of this tomb is the goal of this study. Therefore, the main question is: which of the attributed sites to Shams Tabrizi is really his tomb? In doing so, the suggestion that “the minaret” of Shams in Khoy belongs to the tomb of Shams Tabrizi was examined. In order to answer this question and test the supposition, the historical documents related to the tombs attributed to Shams Tabrizi were subjected to qualitative content analysis. The analysis of the first-hand documents obtained from domestic and foreign sources, especially Ottoman sources, makes the location of Shams Tabrizi’s tomb in Khoy acceptable and confirms the suggestion of the study. Analytical examination of the minarets drawn by Metraqchi showed that the architecture of the third minaret is different from the minarets on both sides of the dome of the Shams’ Tomb. The textual and semantic analysis of the discourse of public culture, including the creation of works of art, the use of holy expressions, local names, and the endowment of the proceeds of public places, showed the spiritual position of the personality and tomb of Shams Tabrizi. Determining the location of Shams Tabrizi’s tomb, analyzing its architectural features and determining the spiritual position of Shams Tabrizi is the final achievement of this study.

The discussion of the typology of mosque architecture in different parts of Iran is a topic that has been studied by many researchers. In this article, in addition to the typology of Local mosques, factors affecting the formation and development of the remaining mosques in Borujerd (17 mosques) from the 12th to the 14th centuries AH have been investigated. Boroujerd has a temperate climate with cold winters, and its architecture, like other regions, is under the influence of the local climate and environment. In so doing, as a result of adaptation to the local environment, specific local architectural characteristics are observed in Boroujerd. This research is based on the assumption that local mosques in Boroujerd are built according to the local climatic conditions and based on local architecture. To infer the factors influencing the formation and development of the local mosques, the architectural components and physical and spatial characteristics of the mosques are examined and studied. The questions are as follows: What are the distinctive structural characteristics of the mosques in the Borujerd region? And how could they be grouped? In the construction of such mosques, how has adaptation to the local environment been considered? How have these mosques been influenced by the local architecture? Research information has been collected based on the library method and field survey using the descriptive-analytical and comparative methods. The result of the research has shown that the types of local mosques in Borujerd, although in the general definition, are in the continuation of the archetypes of mosque architecture, but under the influence of local climatic conditions and the local environment, as well as the influence of native architecture. They have distinctive features compared to other mosques, so they could be grouped into two types of local mosques: winter and summer. They are also divided into several categories according to their architectural features. Among them, we could mention mosques with stone and brick-pillared naves.

Considering the rich history of Iran in the field of art and architecture, delightful doors with unique characteristics are found, each of which is derived from cultural, religious, and social interactions. Typology, recognition, and reproduction of antecedent motifs and designs in traditional doors could revive cultural identity in contemporary cities. Doors and windows are influential factors in shaping buildings in Iranian architecture. Having a thousand-year-old history with the presence of skilled blacksmiths and carpenters, Masouleh has treasured beautiful gates being formed in various buildings at different parts of the town. The purpose of the research is to determine the typology and knowledge of the types of traditional doors in the historical town of Masouleh. The research method is field and library studies. At first, 32 ancient doors in Masouleh were selected for field studies. In the next step, library and interview methods were used to identify the components and designs of the doors. The research results show that the doors in Masouleh are of three types: building, religious, residential and commercial. The doors of the religious buildings are classified into three levels: woodcarving, Girih, tiles, and geometric motifs. The most important factors shaping the decorations of religious doors is the praise of God, which is presented in the form of Islamic, animal, and calligraphy motifs. The doors of the residential buildings are classified into three levels: plain with no design, the ones with geometric design, and Girih tiles. Residential doors are formed based on a combination of the beautiful art of metalwork and woodwork, respect for the needs of the users, and the religious beliefs of the people of Masouleh. The doors of commercial buildings in Masouleh are in the form of collapsible and Girih tile designs. The flexible structure of the collapsible doors of commercial buildings allows for maximum coverage of the openings and visibility of handicrafts. The results indicate that the neighborhoods of Masjed-Bar, Khaneh-Bar, and Keshe-sar have the most classic traditional doors.

So far, valuable studies have been done about the paintings of the Qajar Period from an artistic point of view, especially visual analysis. But their more accurate understanding requires the application of meta-aesthetic approaches such as the sociology of art, since, based on illustrated historical documents such as the ancient reliefs of Iran, the social role of art was in the service of the ruling political class. Based on this, the following paper examines the social function of the first image illustrated in the number one of the second court newspaper during the Naseri era. The approach is based on “reflection,” which could be used to answer this question: What social actions does the image of the fourth shah of the Qajar Period reflect? By studying the mentioned image, this article seeks to achieve a meta-aesthetic analysis, so the purpose of this article is not to analyze the subject from the perspective of visual structure or press graphics, but rather to identify the social actions. The research is done using qualitative and descriptive-analytical approaches. The data collection was done based on the library method and the analysis of illustrations. To answer the question mentioned, the approach was determined based on the theory of reflection. According to this theory, artworks convey many concepts about the state of society, such as the political structure. The results show that the expressive language of art as a promotional strategy has an effective action in the direction of strengthening the political and social domination of society, and therefore, Naser al-Din Shah consciously ordered the formation of a range of types of art, such as the court illustration press, in such a way that it is clearly able to reflect the face of the power and strength of his reign in a real way. This is important because, on the one hand, it reflects the social action of art for a long time, and on the other hand, it has reflected the two-way connection between art and politics.

This research is an interdisciplinary approach to the coexistence of structure and architecture and has investigated the architectural spaces for seismic improvement of traditional buildings which were built during the first Pahlavi Period. Despite the importance of structure and its stability in traditional architecture and in houses that have cultural heritage value, due to the complex and unknown behavior of masonry buildings and the lack of sufficient information, the regulation 2800 has not provided a specific formulation for traditional buildings. But for their seismic improvement, the magazine 360 has been used. This research seeks to answer two questions: a) What are the most important factors affecting the stability of the Berenji building in Kermanshah based on the images and data analysis? b) In the field of architecture, what is the basis for the coexistence of structures and architecture during the first Pahlavi Period? To collect information, field observation and collection methods have been used. The detailed analysis and calculations of relative wall data have been carried out by quantitative method (causal-experimental research) and library technique, and the conclusion has been expressed by qualitative method. With this method, the stability of the structure of traditional buildings could be evaluated by means of relative walls that behave like windbreaks or shear walls. If the structure did not have enough resistance against lateral force or load, it was possible to increase the relative wall or provide other methods to strengthen the structure in relation to its stability; Therefore, it is necessary to research about the cohabitation between the structure and architecture due to the increase or placement of the relative walls. Thus, static principles have been complied in Iranian architecture during the first Pahlavi Period. Now, if similar buildings are evaluated in the mentioned period and this result is obtained, it could be said that the architectural principles were followed at that time with the approach of sufficient resistance of the building against earthquakes, which was obtained experimentally. In other words, the architects of that time were structural engineers by themselves.

The convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage, or the World Heritage Convention (1972), is now considered the most remarkable international tool to protect and identify the shared heritage of humans. Inscription of a site on the World Heritage List is a function of regulations that are specified by the 1972 World Heritage Convention and its operational guidelines. According to the convention, the member states selected sites within their geographical expanse as nominees to enter the world heritage list according to the regulations of the convention. In the years that followed the formation of the convention, the increasing influence of politics made many countries see the world heritage list as a tool to achieve their political, economic, and cultural goals. Thus, the selection of the sites is now a function of multiple factors that make the process of inscription complicated and, in some cases, costly. The present study aimed to answer the following question: “What factors influence the selection of site processes for inscriptions on the world heritage list?” The goal was to identify the explicit and implicit factors so that more successful and cost-effective decisions could be taken from a domestic policy perspective. As a result, the influential components were identified and explained by a descriptive-analytical investigation of the texts related to the convents and a select group of 10 countries with distinguished performance in the process using content analysis, and their relationships were interpreted. Investigations showed that the factors that influenced the process were placed in three layers: the central layer was the requirements of the convention, the middle layer was the constraints of inscription, and the prioritized themes, and the external layer was the factors that influenced the method of selection adopted by countries that included items ranging from their governmental structure to their macro-scale policies in the international arena (among others).