mahdi mashhadi akbar boojar

In recent years, much attention has been paid to using natural substances to treat many chronic diseases. Boswellic acid, obtained from the gum resin of Boswellia serrata (B. serrata) and Boswellia carteri, which consists of five-ring triterpene molecules, has been of interest since ancient times to treat various diseases. This review aims to provide an in-depth explanation of the origin, structure, pharmacokinetics, and especially the biological activities of boswellic acid derivatives.

Articles were reviewed to find studies on B. serrata and isolated boswellic acid derivatives and properties such as anti-cancer, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, blood lipid-lowering, immune modulator, anti-diabetic, liver protective, anti-asthmatic,  and anti-Alzheimer disease. For this purpose, the keywords “Boswellia, Boswellic acid, Therapeutic reviews, Anti-inflammatory” which were selected according to the MeSH pattern were searched in Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus databases separately and together.

The antitumor effects of B. serrata are due to its triterpenoid content, especially boswellic acid. Among boswellic acid derivatives, acetylketoboswellic acid has shown the greatest potential as a cytotoxic molecule. Activation of caspases, increase in Bax expression, decrease in NF-kB level, inhibition of TNF, cyclooxygenase, and lipoxygenase, and suppression of free radical production all play major roles in the cytotoxic and antitumor effects, blood lipid-lowering, immune system modulation, antidiabetes and treatment and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Numerous preclinical researches and a wide range of clinical trials have shown that boswellic acid and its derivatives have a wide range of beneficial medicinal effects against many chronic diseases. These factors can inhibit several mechanisms that contribute to disease progression. However, doubts about the pharmacokinetic quality of this compound have been a decisive challenge in the development of boswellic acid derivatives as an effective drug. Many studies have been initiated to find ways to overcome these barriers and progress in this area will be gradual.

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted globally and created unprecedented challenges. Basic science has played a vital role in understanding the virus and developing diagnostic tools, vaccines, and treatments. Using the principles of virology and immunology, researchers have discovered the transmission routes and physical pathology of Covid-19. This mini-review covers the basic science accomplishments during the COVID-19 pandemic. This review study conducted a content analysis of texts on basic science findings in the COVID-19 pandemic by reviewing PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases. By July 2024, a total of 197 relevant articles were extracted, while the findings of only 78 studies were assessed. Identifying the virus as a new coronavirus and developing diagnostic tests have made it possible to track its spread. Preventive measures such as social distancing and wearing masks have been introduced as essential in controlling the virus while promising treatments to combat COVID-19 have saved many patients' lives. The development of vaccines such as the Noora, PastoCovac, and COVIran Barekat vaccines has been very important in the fight against COVID-19. The pandemic has caused widespread economic impacts and prompted international organizations and policymakers to propose mitigation strategies. Covid-19 has also had a profound impact on society and mental health, leading to increased anxiety and social isolation, which has been studied in psychology and sociology. Utilizing these experiences during future infectious epidemics will be incredibly beneficial.

Ketamine, an NMDA glutamate receptor antagonist, has become a promising treatment for treatment-resistant depression. Its rapid antidepressant effects are observed within a few hours after consumption. S-ketamine nasal spray is approved for use with oral antidepressants. There are still challenges such as maintaining therapeutic response, potential side effects, and the possibility of abuse of this drug. This article examines single-dose intravenous ketamine and intranasal esketamine for the treatment of major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression. It also discusses their use for other psychiatric conditions, side effects, combination therapy, and treatment guidelines.

 A comprehensive search of PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases was performed for English studies using keywords selected based on the MeSH model, including “anesthesia, depression, ketamine, treatment.” The research focused on the antidepressant effects of ketamine in primary and secondary studies from 1995 to August 2024.

Ketamine, a drug originally developed as an anesthetic inducer, has recently emerged as a potential treatment for depression, revolutionizing the field of mental health. Studies have shown that unlike common antidepressants, which take weeks or even months to produce therapeutic results, ketamine can produce a rapid, longer-lasting antidepressant effect and significant improvement in symptoms. This development may be a new option for people struggling with treatment-resistant depression, offering hope for improved mental health and a better quality of life.

Research provides strong support for the rapid but temporary antidepressant and antisuicidal effects of an intravenous ketamine injection for treatment-resistant depression and bipolar depression. Further studies are needed to investigate the effectiveness of ketamine for other disorders, different dosage forms, and combination therapy. It is important to consider the risks and potential side effects associated with ketamine treatment, including withdrawal symptoms, hallucinations, and the potential for abuse. In addition, optimal dosage and administration methods should be carefully evaluated to minimize adverse effects. Despite these challenges, ketamine is a new and innovative approach to treating depression. Its unique mechanism of action and rapid kinetics of action have given hope to people who have not responded to traditional antidepressants. The paradigm-shifting nature of ketamine’s antidepressant response underscores its importance in treating a variety of depressions. It emphasizes the need for standardized treatment guidelines to potentially improve the lives of individuals suffering from this debilitating condition.

Despite the essential role of water in biological environments, this nutrient is often overlooked. The hydration status of the body is determined by water balance (the difference between water intake and output). Water deficiency or negative balance is influenced by various internal and external factors. This review article aims to evaluate the existing evidence regarding the effects of medications on hydration status and discusses their implications for overall health.

A comprehensive search using selected keywords based on the MeSH model, including water, drugs, pharmaceutical additives, hydration, and dehydration, was conducted in the databases PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar for relevant studies published in English. These studies focused on the effects of medications on hydration, encompassing both primary and secondary research.

Current findings regarding the interaction between hydration status and medication use, as well as other related additives, are limited. Medications may induce dehydration by increasing water loss through diarrhea, elevating urine output, or promoting sweating. Common mechanisms of action include reduced thirst sensation, decreased appetite, and altered central temperature regulation. Conversely, many medications can affect hydration status by altering gastric residence time and modifying gastrointestinal permeability and absorption.

Monitoring the hydration status of patients, particularly those at high risk, plays a crucial role in protecting against many unintended side effects arising from medication and dietary regimens. Improving hydration status not only aids in the overall functioning of body systems but can also reduce the risk of complications such as renal dysfunction, hypotension, and increased susceptibility to infections. Therefore, prioritizing hydration as a vital factor in patient care, especially in specific medical conditions, is essential for enhancing treatment outcomes and improving patients' quality of life.

The recent outbreak of the new coronavirus (SARS-COV-2) since December 2019 has been an important threat to global health, and in the meantime, it is important to pay attention to the underlying diseases of the people involved and the role of these diseases in the infection process. The liver may be affected by exposure to the virus, drugs metabolized in the liver, inflammation caused by over activity of the immune system, and possibly the expression of receptors of similar pathways involved in the initiation of the inflammatory process is effective in the entry of more of the COVID-19 virus into the cells. Of course, liver is also exposed to damage.

In this review study, the content analysis of the texts related to the category of health and liver function in patients with COVID-19 infection has been carried out by examining the researches indexed in the international databases of PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus.

Considering that about 10% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection have major liver problems, it is an important challenge to evaluate the liver function and condition of patients during infection and after recovery. All kinds of liver disorders and abnormal levels of aminotransferases have been reported in nearly half of the affected patients, and even in some cases, severe liver damage has also been recorded. A previous history of hepatitis may be the reason for increased viral replication during SARS-CoV-2 infection.

In patients with liver diseases, attention should be paid to the changes observed in the primary liver disease, and monitoring and evaluation of liver function in patients with severe diseases should be intensified during treatment. On the other hand, the therapist must carefully identify and monitor the causes of liver damage in combination with the pathophysiological changes caused by COVID-19. Also, parallel to the active treatment of the primary disease, liver protective treatment should also be performed to reduce liver damage.

During the move between healthcare settings and changes in the medical status of patients, it is very important to update the correct drug regimen according to the clinical conditions to avoid the possibility of medical errors. Nearly half of medication errors occur during initial admission, transfer between hospital departments, and before discharge. Among these errors, about 30% of cases have the potential of seriously harming the patient. Some risk factors, such as old age and the number of drugs used, are associated with an increased risk of medication discrepancies. The medication reconciliation process can significantly reduce the risk of potential errors. It includes obtaining, verifying, and documenting a list of the patient's current medications and comparing it to the patient's medication orders and condition to identify and resolve any discrepancies. Comparing what is being prescribed in one setting with what is being taken in another will prevent errors of drug-drug interactions, omission, and other discrepancies. Pharmaceutical reconciliation is an important element of patient safety and rational drug use, and it can significantly contribute to the health economy

 Evidence indicates the beneficial effects of Lemon balm polyphenols in controlling morphine withdrawal syndrome. The effects of Rosmarinic acid, as one of the most active biological components of this plant, have not been studied in the field of opioid withdrawal syndrome, and therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of Rosmarinic acid on this syndrome in an animal model. 

 To induce dependence, morphine was injected intraperitoneally three times a day (with doses of 50, 50, and 75 mg/kg respectively) for 3 days. On the fourth day after morphine, naloxone was administered to induce the withdrawal syndrome. Different doses of Rosmarinic acid (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) as active treatments, clonidine, and saline (negative control) were injected in different and separate groups (n = 8), 30 minutes before naloxone. The levels of anxiety, irritability, and pain tolerance threshold were evaluated by elevated plus maze (EPM), open field, and hot plate tests after naloxone injection.

 Clonidine and Rosmarinic acid with a dose of 20 could significantly increase the presence of mice in the open arm of the EPM (p < 0.001). The excitability and motor activity in mice with withdrawal syndrome in the groups receiving 10 and 20 Rosmarinic acid and clonidine significantly decreased and the pain threshold increased (p < 0.05), and there was no significant difference between the Rosmarinic acid 20 and clonidine groups.

 These results clearly show that moderate to high doses of Rosmarinic acid (>10 mg/kg) are as effective as clonidine in suppressing the occurrence of morphine withdrawal syndrome and can be considered as a candidate in future clinical trials.

Common anti-depressant drugs have various and sometimes serious side effects that can cause intolerance and arbitrary discontinuation of the drug by the patient. In this research, the anti-depressant effects of rosmarinic acid were investigated in mice and in groups of seven members using the forced swimming test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST).

For this purpose, intraperitoneal injection of rosmarinic acid with doses of 50, 20, 10, and 5 mg/kg in 5 groups of rats, as well as gavage of citalopram suspension with doses of 15 mg/kg in 2 groups and injection of normal saline in the control group for 7 days and then the FST and TST tests were performed. The mean ± standard error of the data obtained from each group was analyzed separately by one-way ANOVA test and P<0.05 was considered significant in each test.

Rosmarinic acid in doses of 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg in both FST and TST tests had significant antidepressant effects compared to the group receiving normal saline (P<0.05) and also in the group receiving citalopram 15 mg/kg along with 50 mg/kg. Rosmarinic acid showed a significant difference in antidepressant effects compared to the group receiving normal saline (P<0.01). The dose of 50 mg/kg of rosmarinic acid did not have significant antidepressant effects compared to the control group.

The findings indicate that rosmarinic acid in low and medium doses has obvious and significant antidepressant effects compared to the normal saline control group, but it does not have an obvious superiority compared to citalopram. An antidepressant effect was not observed in the high dose of rosmarinic acid, which could be due to the predominance of its sedative effects. Therefore, it can be concluded that the antidepressant effects of this agent are not dose-dependent and follows a U-shaped dose-response curve.

Scopolamine has frequently been reported to induce a “memory deficit” in animals and humans. However, the possible role of the non-cognitive effects of the drug in these impairments is often ignored. In the present study, the effects of scopolamine on various behaviors in the radial arm maze were recorded and the ability of physostigmine to reverse them was examined. Male Long-Evans hooded rats were trained on an 8-arm radial maze to consume drops of 0.1 ml of sweetened milk from the end of each arm. Once the asymptomatic performance was achieved, the effects of scopolamine (0.25 mg/kg i.p. 20 min before testing) on(1) the number of errors (re-entries into the arms), (2) the number of rewards drops not consumed, and (3) agitation were examined. The number of errors, the number of drops left, and agitation scores were increased significantly compared to saline-treated rats. Concomitant administration of scopolamine and physostigmine (0.25 i.p. 15 min before testing) significantly reduced the agitation scores and revealed a trend toward a decrease in the number of drops left compared to scop-treated rats. However, in this experiment, scopolamine did not significantly increase the number of errors compared to the saline-treated rats. Taken together, scopolamine induced a small but inconsistent increase in the number of errors. In contrast, there were significant effects of scopolamine on agitation and milk consumption in both experiments. These non-cognitive effects of scopolamine (which were attenuated by physostigmine) may indirectly lead to an increase in errors.

Ethanol is a suitable solvent for many in vivo and ex vivo studies. However, it can interfere with normal muscle contraction and make variations in the results. Contrary to the present study, previous investigations revealed the suppressant effect of ethanol on muscle contraction.

This study was based on an isolated chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle using the twitch tension recording technique. Nerve and muscle complexes were exposed to several concentrations of ethanol (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 mM), and impulses were recorded.

Twitch height increased in time and dose-dependent manner, and the concentration of 500 mM of ethanol after 30 minutes revealed the most elevation of muscle impulses.

The potential effects of ethanol on striated muscle contraction are important and should be considered in studies using ethanol as a solvent.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are one of the most widely used drugs in the treatment of pain and inflammation. Although, their side effects i.e.; gastrointestinal and renal adverse effects, limit the use of these drugs. Therefore, investigating new compounds with higher efficacy and fewer side effects is considerable issue. In this study, the analgesic activity of rosmarinic acid at different doses was compared with piroxicam (known standard NSAID).

To evaluate the analgesic effects of rosmarinic acid, two well-known methods, Hot plate, and Tail-flick, were used. The experiments were performed in 10 groups (6 male mice per group) including the experimental groups (rosmarinic acid), the positive control group (piroxicam), and the negative control group (normal saline). All administrations were through intraperitoneal injection. The obtained data were analyzed separately by SPSS software and an independent student t test.

Rosmarinic acid at doses of 10 mg/kg and higher had significant analgesic effects compared with the control group, 30 minutes after injection in both hot plate and tail flick tests (P < 0.05). Concomitant injection of 50 mg/kg of rosmarinic acid with 15 mg/kg of piroxicam produced significant painkiller effects when compared with the dose of 15 mg/kg piroxicam injection alone.

Rosmarinic acid was able to exert analgesic effects in pharmacological tests in a dose-dependent manner. Concomitant use of rosmarinic acid and piroxicam may lead to synergic pain relief, especially in acute and severe pain in patients, reducing the therapeutic dose of piroxicam and subsequently, its side effects.

Imperialine (Imp) is a steroidal alkaloid present as the main active constituent of medicinal herb, Fritillaria imperialis with many biological and therapeutic effects. However, it has not been investigated in vitro for hypoglycemic effects. Herein, the effects of Imp on cell survival, carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes (alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase), glucose uptake ability, insulin secretion levels, Advanced Glycation End products (AGEs) including pentosidine, methylglyoxal, and 3-deoxyglucosone levels and the activity of glyoxalase I as the main factor for degradation of AGEs were examined. C2C12 skeletal muscle and beta-TC6 pancreatic cells were incubated with Imp at concentrations of 0, 25, 50, 75, and 10 μg/ml and the cells were evaluated separately. The biological assays were based on ultraviolet-visible (UV/VIS) spectrophotometric and/or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods. Imp had considerable and dose-dependent effects on glucose uptake and insulin secretion (P<0.05). The highest levels of glucose uptake were achieved at a concentration of 100 μg/ml of Imp. Increased glycation index, cytotoxicity, and decreased glyoxalase I activity appeared mostly at concentrations of 75 μg/ml and higher. The studied alkaloid demonstrated remarkable hypoglycemic effect by inhibition of alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase. Consequently, the results of the present study revealed possible hypoglycemic effects of Imp and it could be suggested for future studies in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

It is generally believed that the anticholinesterase effect is induced by the organophosphate insecticide parathion only through its bioactive metabolite (i.e., paraoxon) that is created in the liver.

This study aimed to evaluate the intrinsic anticholinesterase effect of parathion, compared to its main metabolite.

This study has been conducted to prepare the isolated chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle using the twitch tension recording method.

According to the results, paraoxon (0.1 μM) induced a highly significant increase (more than 100%) in the twitch height, while higher concentrations (0.3 and 1 μM) induced partial or total contractures. Furthermore, parathion induced almost the same percentage of increase in the twitch height at 1 μM and partial or total contractures at 3 and 10 μM. It should be noted that pralidoxime (2-PAM), at 300 μM, reversed theeffects of paraoxon and its parent (i.e., parathion).

These results demonstrate that both parathion and its metabolite inhibit the acetylcholinesterase enzyme which can be reactivated by pralidoxime, whereas parathion is about 10 times less potent, compared to its metabolite. Therefore, the intrinsic toxic effects of parathion, regardless of its metabolite, should be considered in future studies.

The epidemic of COVID-19 and its associated acute respiratory syndrome has posed an unprecedented challenge in identifying effective drugs to prevent and treat it. Due to the high prevalence of this disease and the high number of people at risk, medical staff needs accurate evidence regarding effective drug treatments for this infection. There is currently no effective treatment for COVID-19. But the rapid development of knowledge about the virology of SARS-CoV-2 provides a significant number of potential pharmacological targets. Evidence suggests that the data provided on the efficacy of hydroxychloroquine is contradictory, but it seems that Remdesivir, although not yet approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, has strong laboratory activity against the virus is the most promising drug treatment. In addition to these results, some clinical trials have ruled out the effectiveness of Oseltamivir and limit the use of corticosteroids. Also, current clinical evidence does not support the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with COVID-19.The COVID-19 epidemic is the largest global public health crisis of the present era since the outbreak of the flu pandemic in 1918. The speed and volume of clinical trials that have begun to examine potential treatments for COVID-19 indicate the urgent need to find the optimal treatment for this problem as soon as possible, which has not yet been conclusively effective.

One of the major problems in educational systems is academic failure in students’ education during their course of study. The lack of control of this decline, especially in medical sciences, leads to a decrease in the scientific level and the efficiency of medical students. This study aimed to determine the main causes of academic failure among pharmacy students of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences.

In this descriptive cross-sectional study, 85 students were selected randomly in the School of Pharmacy at Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. A valid and reliable questionnaire of students’ demographic and educational information and their opinions about the factors related to academic failure, including family, student, teacher, educational environment, educational content, and socio-economic factors were collected. Data were analyzed by SPSS software using Pearson correlation, Spearman correlation, and student T tests.

The total rate of academic failure in the studied population was 9.66%. Also, the rate in non-quota students, regional quota students, in males and females were 20, 6.92, 51.16, and 48.84%, respectively. The main causes of academic failure were educational content, teacher, student, educational environment, family, social factors, and economic factors, respectively from the viewpoint of the students.

This study showed that the first factor of academic failure in pharmacy education based on the opinion of students is about the content of pharmacy education. The educational system in comparison to the community and family is a more effective factor in academic failure.

Proper nutrition is a basic requirement for all hospitalized patients, particularly critically ill patients who, for various reasons, are not able to maintain their nutritional status. Nutritional support is an essential component of care in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) patients and it is commonly performed in two ways of enteral and parenteral nutrition. The present investigation aimed to investigate the nutritional status of this group of patients in comparison with existing standards.

In this study, 50 critically ill patients receiving nutritional support (42 patients were on enteral nutrition and 8 on parenteral) in a referral teaching hospital of Iran were investigated. Each patient was assessed individually and nutritional requirements including calorie and protein were calculated based on age, sex, height, weight, and the stress and activity factors. The total daily energy and protein were compared to standard calculated values. T-test was used to evaluate the differences between separate groups and p

Data showed that 70% of patients in the enteral group did not receive enough calories while only 7% obtained the required protein. In the parenteral group, none of the patients received enough calories or protein.

According to the results of this study, it seems that hospitalized ICU patients receive very poor nutritional support and greater attention should be paid to preventing possible malnutrition-related complications.

Acquiring the participants’ viewpoints of continuing medical education (CME) programs about the implementation of these programs is of special importance.

The current study aimed to assess the educational needs in CME programs by evaluating the pharmacists’ points of view and motivation for more active participation in these programs.

This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in Isfahan University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), from October 2013 to April 2018, 142. Pharmacists were randomly assigned among participants. Self-administered questionnaires were designed, and their content validity and reliability were determined by CME experts and Cronbach’s alpha measurement, respectively.

According to the pharmacists, restoring their previous knowledge and acquiring new information (84.5%) were the main reasons for participating in CME programs. Fifty seven percent of pharmacists insisted on the applied aspects of CME programs and stated clinical pharmacology and therapeutics as the most interesting topic (50%). Fifty-two percent of participants selected a combination of lecture and panel discussion as a perfect method for CME presentation. The programs’s levels in knowledge and skills or attitude promotion were evaluated high and very high by 41.9 and 44.5% of pharmacists, respectively.

Most community pharmacists who participated in CME programs of IUMS had acceptable attendance with this study. It seemed that CME programs were reasonably by their expectations. The participants also had many interesting and valuable comments and expectations, based on which the planning of future programs may lead to enhance their motivation and improve their quality and satisfaction.

A conceptual model is always a suitable way to show the relationship between the different components of a process or among different processes. In the field of incident management, there are several models. However, there is almost no simple,natural, conceptual model to show the relationship between disaster risk management.

Because of the need for the development of a simple model that can quickly and at a glance relate the overall steps and components of the risk management process and various phases of disaster management, this model has been invented based on the evaluation of previous studies and reviewing current literature as well as refining the research and innovation done by the authors.

In this article, a new model, which is called the Egg model, including the shell, the white (albumen) and the yellow (yolk) parts, is introduced. In which, risk management includes three steps. The first step is the assignment of a body, either a person, teamor organization, as responsible (the resembling the shell). In the second step, the body does the assessment of the risk (resembling the white part). Risk assessment, on its own, includes risk identification, risk analysis, and risk evaluation. Finally, (resembling the yellow part), treatment of the risk(s) is begun which includes, prevention and mitigation, and preparedness before the disaster and, response and recovery after the disaster occurrence. Obviously, without an intact shell, the whole egg (albumen and yolk) will decay and all resources will be lost. Also without assessment of the risks, proper and effective management of the disaster is almost impossible. Thethird step of the risk management, the risk treatment, is in fact the disaster management.

This simple model shows the relationship between risk management and risk treatment. Although this model may have oversimplified the process of Risk Management, it helps to create a unique overview and understanding for almost everyone.

Review studies (Literature review) are instructive scholarly papers with low cost of preparation and acceptable novelty and they are considered interesting material for scientific journals. These articles summarize previously published studies and provide a critical and useful analysis of the current literature in a particular topic through summarizing, classification, and comparison of related research papers.

Data from international databases including PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Web of science were collected and evaluated.Results and

In this paper, a brief glance and instruction about the organizational pattern of the text and appropriate writing methods in narrative review articles were provided for enthusiastic students who want to take steps in this field.

According to the major application of radiotherapy in the treatment and diagnosis of several diseases and even nuclear war, the protection of normal tissues and people at risk from the radiation is considerable. Presently, we do not have an ideal and safe radio protective agent and there is great effort to develop these agents from natural sources. Phenolic compounds, as well as flavonoid, are presented widely as the second metabolite in plants and have been considered for investigation according to their benefits for human health, healing and preventing many disorders. The main biologic properties of flavonoids include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-senescence, anti-bacterial and anti-viral, neuroprotection and radio protective effects. The little toxicity and edible usability have made flavonoids as an appropriate choice for radiotherapy patients, radiation, military forces, and even the general public. This review tries to provide a summary of the principal molecular mechanisms involved in flavonoid radio-protective effects. Data of these investigations will give a wide perspective to flavonoids and can help to optimize their effects in radioprotection procedures.

Considering the remarkable application of radiotherapy in the treatment and diagnosis of various diseases and even nuclear war, it is important to protect healthy tissues and people at risk from the radiation. Currently, there is no ideal and safe radioprotective agent available and we are seeing a great effort to find these agents from natural sources. Phenolic compounds, as well as flavonoid, are presented widely as the second metabolite in plants and they have been considered for investigation according to their benefits for human health, healing and preventing many disorders. The major bioactive benefits of flavonoids include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-aging, anti-bacterial and viral, neuroprotection and radioprotective effects. Their lower toxicity and oral administration have made it suitable for radiotherapy patient, radiation, military forces, and even the general public. This review attempts to provide a summary of the main molecular mechanisms involved in flavonoid radio-protective effects. Data of these studies will provide a comprehensive perspective to flavonoids and can help to optimize their effects in radioprotection procedures.

Silibinin is a major component of silymarin (Silybum marianum), which has traditionally been used to treat a wide range of liver diseases. Recently, Silibinin and its derivatives in both in vitro and in vivo models have shown a significant inhibitory effect in different types of tumors including skin, breast, lung, colon, bladder, prostate, kidney and liver. The chemo-preventive potentials of this flavonoid are promoted by inducing apoptosis, enhancing tumor suppressor and cell cycle inhibitors, inhibiting growth factors, and attenuating proliferative mediators. In this paper, a summary of the important molecular mechanisms involved in Silibinin anti-cancer effects, animal studies and important clinical trials have been presented. The results of these studies will provide a more comprehensive perspective of Silibinin and help to optimize its effects in cancer chemotherapy.

Ceramide as a second messenger is a key regulator in apoptosis and cytotoxicity. Ceramide-metabolizing enzymes are ideal target in cancer chemo-preventive studies. Neutral sphingomyelinase (NSMase), acid ceramidase (ACDase) and glucosyl ceramide synthase (GCS) are the main enzymes in ceramide metabolism. Silymarin flavonolignans are potent apoptosis inducers and silibinin is the most active component of silymarin. This study evaluated the effects of silybin A, silybin B and their 3-O-gallyl derivatives (SGA and SGB) at different concentrations (0-200 micro molar) on ceramide metabolism enzymes in Hep G2 hepatocarcinoma cell line. Cell viability, caspase-3 and 9 activities, total cell ceramide and the activities of ACDase, NSMase and GCS were evaluated. Under silibinin derivatives treatments, cell viability decreased and the activities of caspase-3 and 9 increased in a dose dependent manner among which SGB was the most effective one (P