implicit learning

Introduction:

The importance of implicit learning and ways to achieve it in learning motor skills is increasing. However, little research has been carried out on children and the effects of analogy on children’s compressive performance are unclear. This study is performed aiming to compare analogy and verbal learning on accuracy and angular velocity of dart-throwing skills in children.

This experimental study was performed using a semi-experimental design in 24 children with a mean age of 11.06 ± 2.2 years. The subjects were selected by the convenience sampling method and randomly divided into three groups: verbal training, analogy, and control. After the dart throw test (10 attempts), the participants underwent 8 rehearsal sessions (including 50 attempts per session). Retention and transfer tests were taken 3 weeks after the last session and 10 attempts were made on the variables of radial error and angular velocity. Data were analyzed using mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) (3 × 4 in performance and 3 × 3 in angular velocity). α = </em>0.05 was considered as the significance level.

Finding: 

The results showed that the verbal group had a significant decrease in radial error in the acquisition (P < 0.001), retention (P ≤ 0.003), and transfer (P ≤ 0.025). However, an increase in error was observed in the learning (P ≤ 0.001) and transfer stages (P < 0.001) in the control group, and in the transfer stage in the analogy group (P ≤ 0.038). Moreover, the verbal group had a significant increase in elbow angular velocity (P ≤ 0.005), while in other groups there was no significant difference between the test phases (P < 0.05).

It seems that verbal instruction increases the angular velocity, improves accuracy and performance compared to analogy, and is more effective in children’s performance.

Introduction:

 Disabling behaviors of autism are a prominent factor in differences with normal individuals. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of implicit and explicit learning of bimanual coordination on disabling social, communicative, and motor behaviors in autism.

Materials and Methods:

This was semi-experimental research. 24 patients with autism and with an average age of 10 ± 3 years were divided into three equal groups of implicit learning, explicit learning, and control, with the help of pretest Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (SSRQ). The training groups performed bimanual coordination exercises for six days; the implicit learning group performed low-error learning and the explicit learning group performed full-error learning. Then, all of the subjects were re-measured using SSRQ. On the sixth day, the test was taken into account. The data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

 One-way ANOVA showed a significant difference between the implicit learning group with the explicit learning and control groups (P = 0.014). This was significant for social interaction index (P = 0.019) and behavioral disorders (P = 0.002), too. However, there was no significant difference in speech disorder index (P = 0.910).

Conclusion:

 It is suggested that error-less learning be used to educate people with high-performance autism. In addition to benefiting from implicit learning features, we can improve behavioral and social performance.

Acquiring the sequence of information without regard for learning is implicit learning. Many studies have shown implicit motor learning in Alzheimer’s patients, but the obtained results are not consistent about Parkinson’s patients.

In this descriptive-comparative study, through convenient sampling method among elderly patients who referred to the offices of neurologists in city of Zabol (2016), 11 Parkinson's patients, 10 patients with Alzheimer's disease based in NINCDS_ADRDA criteria and 10 cases as control group (4 males and 6 females) were selected. Then MMSE test was used to test the psycho-cognitive status test and the Wechsler Adult IQ test was used to measure the level of intelligence and memory. Parkinson's Disease Staging and Scale (Hoehn & Yahr) was used for Parkinson's patients.

The results for the percentage of errors in Parkinson's patients increased with a change from the fixed blocks to the random block, which indicates tacit learning, but this group of patients responded less tacitly to moving learning compared to other groups at a time.

The errors and the reaction time may indicate separate processes like spatial and motor components of motor-sequence that can be influenced differently in Parkinson and Alzheimer's patients.

This study was performed to compare the implicit motor sequence learning in children with and without developmental coordination disorder.
To compare the implicit motor learning, serial reaction time task (SRT) was designed and used in C programming environment. In this study, 24 participated children were divided into two equal groups of with and without developmental coordination disorder; they practiced 10 blocks of SRT task during the two days with an interval of 24 hours. At the beginning of the test, no explanation was given to learners about the appearance of stimuli and motor learning took place implicitly. Data were analyzed using independent-t and ANOVA tests.
There was no significant difference between the two groups of children with and without developmental coordination disorder in speed (P = 0.235) and precision (P = 0.072) components. However, comparing the between subjects effects during blocks of motor sequence acquisition phase (indicating) significant differences between children with and without developmental disorder in both speed and accuracy variable (P > 0.001).
Although children with developmental coordination disorder have difficulties in acquisition and learning of everyday motor skills, their implicit motor sequence is intact. Therefore, in the process of teaching and rehabilitation of children with developmental coordination disorder, we can take advantage from implicit learning.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of age-related changes and explicit and implicit knowledge on mixed motor sequence learning and its consolidation.
In this study, 96 right-handed boys who were healthy considering nervous system with age range of 6-18 years were selected via convenience sampling method. Serial reaction time task (SRTT) was used to evaluate and compare the performance in two components of response time and accuracy. The intervention was consisted of 10 stages (8 blocks for acquisition and 2 blocks for consolidation) in which the performances of groups were compared. The data were analyzed using mixed ANOVA test in 2 (type of learning) × 4 (age groups) × 8 (blocks) and Bonferroni test was used for paired comparisons.
In acquisition phase for response time, significant main effects were observed for block (P = 0.031) and age (P = 0.001), not learning conditions (P = 0.431). For response accuracy, significant main effects were observed for block (P = 0.001), age (P = 0.001) and learning conditions (P = 0.003). In addition, the performances of groups across the two first blocks of practice on the second day were better compared with the first day in response time (P = 0.001) and accuracy (P = 0.001), which represented the consolidation of motor learning.
The findings showed that among different age groups, there were age-related functional changes in the acquisition and consolidation of response time and accuracy for motor sequence task. Moreover, the various components of the movement (speed and accuracy) can be performed and consolidated in different ways. This matter should be considered in educational and rehabilitation interventions related to children and adolescents.

The aim of this study was to assess of both implicit and explicit motor sequence learning in children with attention deficit hyper activity disorder (ADHD) and typical peers, by serial reaction time task.

The sample size for each group was 12. The study sample was included 24 children with ADHD, in explicit learning group and implicit learning group. and 24 typical children was included in implicit learning group, and explicit learning group.ANOVA repetitive measured for comparing response time and errors in different blocks, and paired t-test was used for comparing regular and irregular blocks.

The comparision of implicit and explicit learning on, accuracy (error response) and speed (response time) in ADHD explicit group would indicate accuracy (P-value=0/012), speed (P-value=0/012) and in ADHD implicit groop would indicate accuracy (P-value=0/094), speed (P-value=0/954).so in typical explicit group would indicate accuracy (P-value=0/008), speed (P-value=0/05) and in typical implicit group showed that accuracy (P-value=0/011), response times (P-value=0/442).

This study showed that explain the task in motor sequence learning is more better in ADHD children. so before performing a task should be considered.

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are associated with various abnormalities of cortical areas resulting in motor learning deficits. Motor learning can be categorized into two main types: implicit motor learning and explicit motor learning. The main goals of this study was to investigate the possible differences between implicit and explicit motor learning in children with high functioning autism including those with Asperger Syndromes and a matched group of typical children and to evaluate the extent of learning consolidation in these two groups after 24 hours.

30 boys with autism spectrum disorder، diagnosed via ASSQ، and a matched group of 32 typical boys were recruited from elementary schools of Najaf Abad، Isfahan، Iran، and then were compared with each other. At the first day of the study، participants in both groups performed a serial reaction time task with 10 blocks by the right hand. A similar task with 4 blocks and by the same hand was performed after 24 hours. Repeated measure ANOVA was conducted for the statistical analysis of the data using SPSS 19.

Concerning explicit motor learning، the two study groups showed a significant difference which implicated an explicit learning deficit in the subjects with ASD (P = 0. 009). Results also indicated no significant difference in implicit learning between these two group (P = 0. 385). Intact implicit consolidation (P = 0. 160) and deficit in explicit consolidation (P = 0. 046) was also observed in the ASD group.

Deficits in explicit motor learning and consolidation among subjects with ASD may be due to left hemisphere dysfunction which is specialized for motor learning. Since explicit consolidation is sleep-dependant and children with ASD usually suffer from sleep disorders، deficit in explicit consolidation was expectable. Intact implicit learning and consolidation can be attributed to the effect that right hemisphere has on implicit motor learning.

Acquisition motor skill training in older adults are great importance. The main purpose of this study was to compare middle age and older adult’s implicit learning in serial reaction time task. A serial reaction time task by using software was applied for studying motor learning in 30 older and 30 middle age adults. In this task 4 squares with different colors appeared on the monitor and subjects were asked to press its defined key immediately after observing it. Subjects practiced 8 motor blocks (4 repeated blocks، then 2 random blocks and finally 2 repeated blocks) in 10 sequences for each block. Subjects were not provided with any explanation about the sequence of squares Block time that was dependent variable measured and Independent-samples t test and Repeated Measures ANOVA was used in this test. All subjects were right handed and no history of neurologic disease or musculoskeletal dysfunction. middle age groups performed significantly faster than the older adults (P<0. 05). Block time differences of second block with eight and tenth blocks (two next days) were significant and similar in both groups. Although performance level was significantly better for middle age than older group، learning and performance improvement that was significantly higher in older group and learning is relatively unaffected by age.