fatemeh sefidkon

Among the 16 species of Satureja in Iran, 10 are endemic, including S. bachtiarica, S. khuzistanica, S. intermedia, S. sahendica, S. isophylla, S. rechingeri, S. edmondi, S. kallarica, S. atropatana, and S. kermanshahensis. Satureja sahendica Bornm. is a perennial plant with essential oil widely used in the pharmaceutical, food, health, and cosmetic industries. Its antiviral properties have also been documented. Drought stress is one of the most significant environmental challenges for plants, leading to reduced water absorption, stomatal conductance, transpiration, and photosynthesis, while also disrupting hormonal balance. Plants adopt various mechanisms to mitigate drought stress, such as increasing osmotic regulators like sugars, proline amino acids, and proteins. Drought conditions typically decrease chlorophyll content while increasing carotenoids. Additionally, oxidative stress intensifies under drought, leading to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species such as catalase, superoxide dismutase, and ascorbate peroxidase in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Mycorrhizal fungi play a crucial role in enhancing root absorption, regulating water movement within host plants, and ultimately improving tissue water uptake and leaf physiology.

This experiment was conducted using a split-plot design within a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications at the Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands during 2015–2016. The main factor was irrigation treatment, consisting of full irrigation (control), irrigation interruption at the stem stage (resumed at the budding stage), irrigation interruption at the budding stage (no irrigation until the end of the flowering period), and irrigation interruption at the 50% flowering stage (no irrigation until the end of flowering). The secondary factor was biological fertilizer application, which included no biofertilizer (control), inoculation with Glomus intraradices, inoculation with Glomus mosseae, and inoculation with Glomus mosseae + Glomus intraradices. Throughout the growth period, irrigation was maintained at 80–90% of field capacity, and drought treatments were applied based on plant morphology. The biofertilizers contained mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus intraradices and Glomus mosseae) in the form of active fungal structures, including spores, hyphae, and roots. Before transplanting the seedlings, 10 grams of biofertilizer, containing 400 to 500 active fungal units, was applied to each planting hole.

The interaction effect of drought stress and mycorrhiza was significant at the 1% probability level for protein, catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, chlorophyll a, total chlorophyll, proline, polyphenol oxidase, soluble sugars, essential oil percentage, essential oil yield, and flowering shoot yield, while its effect on carotenoid and total phenol was significant at the 5% level. The results indicated that the yield of p-cymene, γ-terpinene, and thymol was significantly influenced at the 1% level by the triple interaction of year, drought stress, and mycorrhiza. Mean comparisons revealed that catalase, superoxide dismutase, chlorophyll b, proline, total phenol, essential oil percentage, and essential oil yield were higher in the second year. Regarding drought stress, the highest flowering shoot yield was observed under full irrigation and moisture stress applied at the full flowering stage. Mycorrhizal treatment comparisons showed that the highest malondialdehyde release occurred in plants without inoculation and those treated with the combination of Glomus intraradices + Glomus mosseae. Essential oil analysis revealed that the highest percentage (2.23%) was obtained in the budding stage treatment with G. mosseae, while the highest essential oil yield (51.78 kg/ha) was recorded under full irrigation with G. intraradices inoculation. The triple interaction (year × drought stress × mycorrhiza) analysis showed that in the first year, the highest thymol yield (74.59%) resulted from full irrigation combined with G. mosseae inoculation.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the application of biological fertilizers effectively mitigated the effects of drought stress, leading to an increase in both the essential oil percentage and thymol content.

This research was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of different nutritional treatments on the yield and compositions of Satureja bachtiarica Bunge essential oil. Satureja bachtiarica Bunge is an endemic aromatic and medicinal plant from the Lamiaceae family. Satureja bachtiarica is found in the west and center of Iran, in the habitat of rocky and stony slopes in some areas.

This experiment was performed during four years (2018 to 2021) in the agricultural conditions of the Alborz province. Sixteen nutritional treatments included chemical fertilizer, animal manure, vermicompost, mixtures with different amounts of chemical fertilizer, animal manure and vermicompost, Glomus mosseae, Glomus intraradaices, Azospirillum lipoferrum, Pseudomonas putida, Thiobacillus thioparus, Thiobacillus thioparus+ different amounts of sulfur, Thiobacillus thioparus+ vermicompost, and the control treatment. In treatments containing mycorrhiza, before planting the seedlings in the field, 10 grams of Glomus mushroom were poured into each planting hole. In treatments containing bacteria, to inoculate the seedlings with the desired bacteria, first the seedlings were placed in the inoculum for 20 minutes, then they were transferred to the culture pits and irrigation was done immediately for these treatments. Plants were harvested at the full flowering stage, dried at room temperature and hydro-distilled for obtaining the essential oils. The oils were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC-FID) and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometer (GC/MS).

The results of composite variance analysis showed that the effect of timing (as indicated by the year) and the interaction of year in nutritional treatments on the percentage of essential oil (weight/weight) were significant at the 5% probability level. The highest yield of essential oil (2.30%) in the second year was obtained from the treatment of 50 tons of nitrogen, 25 tons of phosphorus and 25 tons of potassium per hectare+ 60 tons per hectare of animal manure. Additionally,the highest percentage of carvacrol was observed during 4 years with an average of 61.2% in the treatment of 60 tons per hectare of manure.

The results showed that the use of nutritional treatments were effective in increasing carvacrol and the efficiency of Satureja bachtiarica essential oil compared to the control.

 Seseli olivieri (Apiaceae) is an exclusive species of the Alborz Mountains, Iran. In this research, the effect of environmental conditions on the vegetative traits and essential oil compounds of this species was investigated. For this purpose, three habitats with different heights were selected and the vegetative characteristics of this species were measured. In each habitat, soil samples and flowering branches of this species were collected and analyzed in the laboratory. The relationship between the functional traits of this species and environmental factors was determined using CA and PCA. Variance analysis of functional traits and soil parameters showed a significant difference between the three habitats. The highest values of vegetative traits were related to Tuyeh habitat. In Tange Kavard habitat, the main effective substances were Apiol and cis-Cadina-1(6),4-diene; in Enzo habitat, Apiol and Bornyl acetate; and in the Tuyeh habitat, Bornyl acetate and α-Pinene. Among the environmental factors, altitude, annual precipitation, annual temperature, minimum temperature of the coldest month, minimum absolute temperature, lime and nitrogen had the most significant correlation with the functional traits of this plant. Based on the IUCN criteria, the conservation status of this species was determined in the critically endangered.

Rosa damascena Miller essential oil (EO) is a valuable and widely utilized product in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries due to its pleasant aroma and unique biological properties. The quantity and quality of EO can be influenced by various factors, including genetic, environmental conditions, the timing of flower collection, harvesting and storage methods, and the extraction process. The absence of standardized indicators for rose EO has led to confusion in consumer industries when it comes to identifying the quality of EOs produced by different companies. To address this issue, the present study was conducted to determine the range of changes in the physicochemical properties of Iranian rose EO according to ISO standard methods. For this study, the EO obtained from the distillation of fresh rose flowers (referred to as the first oil) was blended with the redistilled rose water (known as the second oil). This mixture was then subjected to physical and chemical analysis to determine the characteristics of the total EO of rose. The findings indicated that the total EO appears as a liquid or semi-solid, is transparent, and has a color ranging from light yellow to green. It possesses a fresh rose scent and a natural taste, free from any unpleasant odors or flavors typically associated with decay, sourness, or mold. The minimum and maximum values determined for the physical and chemical properties of Rosa damascena EO are: relative density at 25 ºC: 0.820-0.872, refractive index at 25 ºC: 1.4520-1.4650, optical rotation at 25 ºC: (-7.0°) - (-1.5°), freezing point: 16-24 ºC, acid value: maximum 3.4, ester value: maximum 23.0, and average flash point: 85 ºC. The main compounds in the EO of Rosa damascena are citronellol (25-45%), geraniol (6-25%), nerol (1-12%), n-nonadecane (7-30%), n-henicosane (2-8%), nonadecene (1-5%), n-tricosane (0.1-5%), n-eicosane (0.1-3%).

In recent years, the use of indigenous isolates of fluorescent pseudomonads to improve essential oils (EOs)’ quantity and quality of various medicinal plants has been considered. In this study, samples were taken from the rhizosphere of Satureja rechingeri plants located in the habitats of Ilam province, Iran. Fluorescent pseudomonads were screened by producing fluorescent green pigment in King's B medium. From the 22 isolates, PF4, PF11, and PF19 were recognized as the superior isolates due to producing the highest amount of pigment and were identified with the help of biochemical tests. The 16-leaf seedlings of savory were transferred to the field two months after planting the seeds in the greenhouse. Each of the two-year-old plants was treated with a suspension (107 cfu/ml) of the superior isolate, by adding it to the soil in a randomized complete block design (n=3). Seven months after applying the treatments, which coincided with full flowering stage in the third year of planting, EO was extracted from the flowering branches by water distillation method. The main components of the EOs were identified with the GC-FID set. The percentage yield of the EO was calculated based on the plant dry weight. According to the results, PF4, PF11, and PF19 belonged to biovars II, III, and V of Pseudomonas fluorescens, respectively. Based on GC-FID analysis, several compounds such as carvacrol, alpha-thogen, alpha-pinene, myrcene, para-cymene, gamma-terpinene, terpinolene, linalool, trans-caryophyllene, beta-bisabolene, and spatholenol were detected in Reshingari's EO. The carvacrol amount as the main component of EO increased from 82.8% in control to 91.7% in PF11 treatment. The percentage of plants’ EO yield increased from 3.02% in the control to 4.4% in the PF11 treatment, significantly (P<0.05). Therefore, the application of efficient and indigenous rhizobacteria from fluorescent pseudomonads can improve the quantity and quality of Reshingari EO under field conditions.

This study investigated the effects of harvesting time including vegetative and flowering stages and four different ratio of volumes of distillate to 1 kg of fresh plant (2, 4, 6, and 8 L per 1 kg fresh plant) on physiochemical characters and essential oils of the peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) distillate. In addition, comparisons were made between distillate resulted from dried (drying in shade, sunlight+shade, and sunlight) and fresh peppermint samples. Distillation was performed using the water distillation method. Standard protocols were used to investigate the physiochemical properties of distillate. Analyses of the essential oils were done using Gas Chromatography (GC) and GC-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). Two-way analyses of variances showed significant effects of the harvest time and distillate volume on ester number, oxidation number, iodine number, and essential oils quantity of the distillate. The highest amount of ester no. (10.8 ± 0.02) and oxidation no. (165.33 ± 70.46) was quantified in the vegetative stage and 1:4 L of distillate. Total amount of essential oils in the flowering (37.83% ± 5.9) were higher than the vegetative (28.25 ± 8.73) stages. In addition, distillates volumes of 2:1 (35.50 ± 3.56%) and 4:1 (40.33 ± 5.53%) had higher essential oils than the other distillate volumes. Drying methods had significant effects on all physicochemical properties of distillates. Menthol (33.9-40.6 %) and menthone (11.3-34.9 %) were the highest components of the oils within the distillates. The results indicated that the peppermint distillate may have higher quality when the plants harvested at flowering stage, dried at sunlight+shade, and distillate taken at 2 and/or 4 L to 1 kg plant.

This research aimed to identify the volatile compounds of essential oils found in the aerial parts of two Nepeta species (N. kurdica Hausskn. & Bornm., and N. chionophila Boiss. & Hausskn.). This is the first phytochemical investigation of these two Nepeta species. The essential oils were obtained by hydro-distillation and analyzed by a combination of capillary gas chromatography (GC-FID) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Nineteen compounds accounting for 90.8% of N. kurdica oil were identified, while there were fifteen volatile components corresponding to 95.1% in N. chionophila oil. Nepetalactone isomers make up 64.2% of N. kurdica and 90.5% of N. chionophila oils. The main component of N. kurdica oil was 4aa-7a-7aa-nepeta lactone (57.7%), while 4aα-7a-7ab-nepeta lactone (71.8%) and 4aa-7a-7aa-nepeta lactone (15.9%) were the major constituents of N. chionophila oil. So, the essential oils of N. chionophila (endemic) and N. kurdica (native) can be used the same as catnip (N. cataria) oil that is used for antimicrobial, repellent and insecticide effect, as a fortifier, a disinfectant and a cure against cold.

Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad is a species native to Iran and is highly important in south western regions. It belongs to the Lamiaceae family which is widely used in various pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic and health industries. Quantitative comparison of the essential oil extracted from the flowering branches of S. khuzistanica shows that the amount of essential oil varies between 2.5 % and 3.7 %. Chemical analysis of essential oils revealed that the main and common constituents of essential oils are carvacrol (92.21 to 95.75%), γ-terpinene (0.37 to 1.93%), p-cymene (0.48 to 1.64%), β-bisabolene (0.64 to 0.83%), and myrcene (0.26 to 0.67%). The relative density of S. khuzistanica essential oil at 20 °C is from 0.953 to 0.987, and the refractive index of essential oil at 20 °C is from 1.5064 to 1.5147, the optical rotation of essential oil at 20 °C is from -1.00 to -1.40 degrees. If one volume of S. khuzistanica essential oil is mixed with 1.4 volume of 80% ethanol at a temperature of 20 °C, a clear liquid is obtained.

The study of medicinal plants in pasture ecosystems, alongside their ecological requirements, forms the foundation for developing valuable natural models for research and practical applications. Ecological factors primarily influence the type and quantity of essential compounds in medicinal plants. Economic utilization of these plants is feasible only when their compound levels are optimal. Therefore, understanding the factors that enhance active substances in medicinal plants is crucial. This study investigates the correlation between climatic, topographical, and edaphic parameters on the morphological traits and essential oil compounds in Hymenocrater oxyodontus Rech.f.

Three habitats of H. oxyodontus in Semnan province were selected, each with distinct environmental conditions. Within each habitat, 15 plots of 16 m² were established using a systematic random method. Morphological characteristics such as plant height, canopy diameter, canopy cover, biomass, and leaf area were measured. Flowering branches were collected in triplicate, and essential oils were extracted via hydrodistillation using a Clevenger apparatus. Essential oil compounds were identified by GC-FID and GC/MS. Soil samples from each habitat were analyzed for physicochemical parameters including pH, EC, OM, N, P, K, SP, lime, and texture. Variance analysis and data mean comparisons were conducted using SPSS software, with correlation analysis and PCA performed in Minitab software. The conservation status of H. oxyodontus was determined using the IUCN criteria via GeoCAT software.

Variance analysis of morphological traits revealed significant differences among the three regions for leaf area (0.1% level), plant height (1% level), canopy diameter, canopy cover, and biomass (5% level). Peygambar Mountain exhibited the highest values for plant height (35.4 cm), canopy diameter (69.2 cm), canopy cover (9.4%), leaf area (2.3 cm²), and biomass (135.1 g). Analysis of essential oil components also showed significant differences among regions at various levels (0.1%, 1%, and 5%). Dominant compounds in Peygambar Mountain included Trans-Cadina-1(6),4-diene (12.1%), Spathulenol (11.2%), Caryophyllene oxide (7.1%), and Nootkatin (7.1%). In Abar Mountain, Spathulenol (10%), α-Vetivone (6.8%), Caryophyllene oxide (6.1%), and Nootkatin (5.8%) were predominant, while 1,8-Cineole (16.4%), Hexadecanoic acid (8.9%), and Spathulenol (7.3%) were main compounds in the Parvar region. Soil physicochemical parameters showed significant differences in EC, OM, P, K, SP, lime, sand, and silt at the 0.1% level, pH and N at the 1% level, and clay at the 5% level. Peygambar region had the highest values for EC (1.3 ds/m), P (16.6 mg/L), OM (2.5%), N (0.14%), and sand (72%). Parvar region exhibited higher values for K (307.6 mg/L), lime (17.1%), SP (31.7%), silt (34%), and clay (12%). Significant correlations were found between altitude, annual precipitation, annual temperature, maximum temperature of the hottest month, OM, N, P, K, SP, lime, and both morphological traits and essential oil compounds. H. oxyodontus was determined to be CR (Critically Endangered) based on an AOO of 4 km² and an EOO of 15,735 km².

Environmental factors, particularly altitude, significantly affect the functional characteristics of H. oxyodontus. Vegetation indices were higher in the lower altitude Peygambar Mountain. For economic utilization, low-altitude areas are recommended for cultivation, whereas for therapeutic purposes, high-altitude areas like Parvar with higher concentrations of oxygenated terpenes are preferable. For commercial cultivation, mountain ecotypes' seeds are suggested.

In this article, a phytochemical investigation including identification and measurement of some phenolic compounds in the hydroalcoholic extracts of the Cichorium intybus L. collected from 6 localities was carried out. Among the studied compounds, chicoric acid (0.55 to 6.04 mg per gram of dry plant), chlorogenic acid (0.50 to 5.37 mg per gram of dry plant), and rutin (0.56 to 2.25 mg per gram of dry plant) were found in extracts of aerial parts and chicoric acid (0.03% to 0.29 mg per gram of dry plant) and chlorogenic acid (0.84% to 2.88 mg per gram of dry plant) were found in the roots of all samples. Among the studied populations, the highest amount of major compounds (chicoric acid and chlorogenic acid) were observed in the aerial parts of the sample collected from the National Botanical Garden of Iran with 6.04 mg of chicoric acid and 5.37 mg chlorogenic acid per gram of dry plant.

Deficiency or excess of any growth factor leads to morphological, anatomical, physiological, and growth disorders in plants. Drought stress means a lack of water in the plant. This situation occurs when the amount of transpiration exceeds the amount of water absorption. Low irrigation (watering less than the optimal water requirement of the plant) is a strategy to save water, but it affects the plant at a particular stage of growth or the entire season. Biofertilizers develop the root system, changing host plant water relations and plant metabolism. They also activate the defense system, improving access to minerals and tolerance to drought in the host plant, making it environmentally friendly and natural. To manage the prevailing water crisis, one should look for solutions such as reducing water consumption and stopping irrigation at all stages of growth. This is without harming the plant's final performance. In addition, due to the importance of medicinal plants and increasing their biomass, biological fertilizers and the adjustment of drought stress effects have a special place. This experiment was carried out to investigate the effectiveness of Satureja bachtiarica Bunge. against dehydration at different stages of growth. It also investigated the consumption of mycorrhizal fungi and growth-stimulating bacteria to manage plant production with high quality and quantity.

The experiment was carried out in the form of split plots in the form of a randomized complete block design in three replications in the research farm of Islamic Azad University, Tabriz branch, in 2018. The main and sub-factors were included in 4 water stress (I1: without stress, I2: cut irrigation in stem elongation stage, I3: cut irrigation at the budding stage and I4: cut irrigation at 50% flowering stage) and 5 biofertilizer levels (b1: without inoculation, b2: inoculation with Funneliformis mosseae, b3: inoculation with Rhizophagus irregularis, b4: Funneliformis mosseae + Rhizophagus irregularis and b5: Azosprillium+Pseudomonas+Azetobacter), respectively. The harvest was in full flowering stage.

The comparison of the average of irrigation interruptions showed that the most number of leaves, stem diameter, canopy extent, root weight, leaf yield, flowering stem yield, and flowering branch yield belonged to the irrigation interruption at the 50% flowering stage. Inoculation with Funneliformis mosseae mycorrhizal fungus achieved the highest leaf yield (912.06 kg/ha), flowering stem yield (1071.25 kg/ha) and flowering branch yield (1983.32 kg/ha) in inoculation with Azosprillium + Pseudomonas + Azotobacter was observed. The highest percentage of essential oil was found in inoculation with Funneliformis mosseae with an average of 1.76%. The maximum average yield of essential oil at 30.50 kg/ha was observed in the inoculation treatment with Azosprillium + Pseudomonas + Azotobacter. The results of the comparison of the average of the interaction effect showed that the maximum height of the plant and the number of inflorescences with an average of 61.72 cm and 30.46 per plant were found in the interaction effect of the treatment of interruption of irrigation at the stemming stage and inoculation of Rhizophagus irregularis + Funneliformis mosseae, which is about 31 and 39 The percentage increased compared to their lowest value. Stopping irrigation in the budding stage ×Funneliformis mosseae had the highest percentage of essential oil with an average of 2.33%. Stopping irrigation in the stemming stage ×Rhizophagus irregularis had the lowest essential oil percentage. The highest leaf yield (1212.83 kg/ha), flowering stem yield (1494.75 kg/ha), flowering branch yield (2707.58 kg/ha) and essential oil yield (44.39 kg/ha) in the interaction effect of cutting × Azosprillium + Pseudomonas + Azotobacter irrigation was observed at the 50% flowering stage, which increased by 70, 82, 81 and 87% compared to the lowest ones.

The correct management of soil fertility, improvement, and maintenance of soil fertility in modern agricultural systems will provide the nutrients needed by the plant and thus enhance the yield. Therefore, in recent years, many studies have been conducted on biological fertilizers. Mycorrhizal fungi are essential factors in the stable plant-soil system, which coexists with more than 85% of plants. Drought stress is one of the most influential environmental factors in plant growth and causes morphological, physiological, and metabolic changes. In addition, biofertilizers increase plant access to nutrients and produce and direct hormones involved in the growth of the root environment. They also increase stress tolerance and enhance yield. Considering the arid and semi-arid conditions of the country and the increase in demand for medicinal plants and Satureja bachtiarica spices, it is recommended to stop irrigation at the 50% flowering stage and use Azotobacter, Azospirillium, and Pseudomonas biofertilizers to obtain the maximum yield of leaves, flowering branches, and essential oil.

Awareness of changes in medicinal plant yield quantity and quality over time is one of the most important goals in agricultural management. Satureja mutica is one of the valuable medicinal species growing in Iran. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different planting beds on changes in vegetative characteristics and essential oil components over the years of growth in S. mutica under rainfed conditions. The experiment was conducted in the form of split plots in a randomized complete block design for three years (2018-2020) in the rainy conditions of Feridounshahr city, Isfahan province. Planting beds as the main plot included cow manure (30 tons per hectare), wheat straw (10 tons per hectare), and control (without cow manure and wheat straw). After the preparation of the field, the seedlings were planted at the bottom of the wells created at a distance of 50 x 50 cm from each other. During the growing season and at the time of 50% flowering, the studied traits including total plant dry weight, leaf and stem dry weight, plant height, crown diameter per plant, canopy area per plant, and in each square meter of land and the number of stems per plant were measured. For essential oil extraction, the flowering branches of the plants were harvested at the full flowering stage. After drying in the shade, the essential oil was extracted by the water distillation method. After determining the yield of essential oils based on the dry weight of the plant, the essential oils were analyzed and identified by gas chromatography, and gas chromatography was connected to a mass spectrometer in the phytochemistry laboratory of the Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands. Considering that the plant is several years old and measurements are carried out every year on fixed plots, the design analysis was done on divided plots at the time of implementation. The SAS computer program was used to perform statistical calculations, and the LSD test was applied to compare the means. For essential oil extraction, the flowering branch of the plant was harvested at the full flowering stage. After drying in the shade, the essential oil was extracted by the water distillation method. After determining the yield of essential oils based on the dry weight of the plant, the essential oils were analyzed and identified by gas chromatography, and gas chromatography was connected to a mass spectrometer in the phytochemistry laboratory of the Research Institute of Forests and Pastures. The SAS computer program was used to perform statistical calculations, and the LSD test was used to compare the means. The variance analysis of the data showed that the effects of bed, year, and their interaction effects on the measured traits were significant in many cases. Results showed that the highest values of plant height, crown diameter, canopy area, and number of stems per plant in the first year were seen in manure treatment. In the last year, they were in control. The highest rates of total dry weight, leaf dry weight, essential oil yield, and essential oil percentage were observed in control in the last year. These rates were 1427, 891, 42 kg ha-1, and 4.67%, respectively. The main essential oil components are thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, and gamma-terpinene. These essential oil components are affected by the planting bed and the growth year. So in the case of p-cymene, the highest amount obtained in the first year was in the straw treatment. The highest amounts of gamma-terpinene were observed in all three planting bed treatments in the last year of growth. S. mutica had significant amounts of thymol, and the trend of changes among planting bed treatments and during growing years was very small. The highest amounts of carvacrol were observed in straw treatment and animal manure in the second year of growth. The results of the correlation coefficients showed that the most vital traits affecting essential oil yield were total dry weight, leaf and stem, and essential oil percentage. Thymol and p-cymene were inversely correlated with carvacrol and gamma-terpinene. On the whole, to produce S. mutica under rainfed conditions similar to this study, manure or straw could affect yield and essential oil over the first and second years; however, in the third year, this effect diminished, and control treatment was superior to straw and manure treatments.

Numerous studies on the chemical composition of Nepeta species essential oils in Iran show that changes in chemical composition are influenced by various factors including geographical location, weather conditions, plant growth stages, and analysis techniques. It is crucial to understand the variables that influence the effective substances of these medicinal plants. Nepetalactone is the first chemotype for the essential oils of plants in this genus. Nepetalactone can be divided into different isomers. For example, 4aα,7α,7aα-Nepetalactone found in Nepeta cephalotes Boiss., Nepeta crassifolia Boiss. & Buhse, Nepeta mirzayanii Rech.f. & Esfand. and Nepeta racemosa Lam.; 4aα,7α,7aβ-Nepetalactone in Nepeta cataria L., Nepeta meyeri Benth. and Nepeta pogonosperma Jamzad & Assadi; and 4aβ,7α,7aβ-Nepetalactone in Nepeta bornmuelleri Hausskn. & Bornm., Nepeta eremophila Hausskn. & Bornm. and Nepeta persica Boiss. are highly useful as biochemical markers for Nepeta essential oil in chemotaxonomic studies. The 1,8-Cineole chemotype or with Linalool makes up the second category. The first chemical is the most prevalent in a number of Nepeta species, including Nepeta binaloudensis Jamzad, Nepeta crispa Willd., Nepeta denudata Benth., Nepeta ispahanica Boiss. and Nepeta menthoides Boiss. & Buhse. The essential oils of Nepeta species in Iran contain 33 effective substances in a significant amount. These oils are comprised of monoterpenes and hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes. To date, research on the phytochemical variety of Nepeta species and how ecological conditions affect their morphological characteristics and secondary metabolites has only looked at Nepeta asterotricha Rech.f., Nepeta binaloudensis, Nepeta eremokosmos Rech.f. and Nepeta pogonosperma. In these studies, it has been frequently mentioned that altitude affects the quantity and quality of beneficial substances found in the species of this genus. There has been no exploration of other factors related to the species' habitat. The purpose of this research project was to conduct a thorough investigation of the effect of environmental parameters on the essential oil composition of medicinal species Nepeta eremokosmos.
 

In Semnan province, three different habitats for Nepeta eremokosmos, each with distinct environmental conditions, were selected. A systematic random method was used to establish a series of plots in each habitat. Vegetative traits, such as plant height, canopy diameter, canopy cover,

 
biomass, and leaf area, were meticulously measured in every plot. To prepare a herbarium sample, the flowering aerial parts of Nepeta eremokosmos were collected in June 2022 from three specific regions: Momenabad, Hajjaj, and Javin. Three replicates of the flowering branches of Nepeta eremokosmos were taken from each population. The samples were dried in both the open air and shade after being transferred to the laboratory. The Clevenger apparatus was used to extract the essential oils through hydrodistillation after grinding the dried samples. GC-FID and GC/MS were used to identify essential oil compounds. In each habitat, five soil samples were also collected, and important physicochemical parameters such as pH, EC, OM, N, P, K, lime, gypsum, and soil texture were measured. Afterwards, the data were examined by conducting one-way variance analysis and comparing mean values using SPSS software. Correlation analysis was used to determine the most significant environmental factors that influenced vegetative traits and essential oil compounds. Moreover, principal component analysis was carried out using Minitab software. The conservation status of Nepeta eremokosmos was determined using the IUCN method and based on the criteria of EOO and AOO using GeoCAT software, as well as data related to population size and habitat quality.
 

Nepeta eremokosmos' vegetative traits varied significantly between the three regions in terms of plant height and leaf area, with a 0.1% difference, the canopy diameter and cover are at 1%, while the biomass is at 5%. The comparison of mean vegetative traits revealed that the highest values of height, canopy diameter, canopy cover, leaf area, and biomass, with 20.8 cm, 34.1cm, 2.3%, 4.1cm2, and 30.1g, respectively related to Momenabad habitat. The variance analysis of essential oil components in three populations of Nepeta eremokosmos revealed that their effective substances were significantly different at levels of 0.1, 1 and 5%. The Momenabad habitat contained 1,8-Cineole, 4a, 7a-Nepetalactone, and p-Cymene, with a respective concentration of 50.8, 7.2, and 6.5%. Hajjaj had the highest concentration of 1,8-Cineole, Myrtenal, and p-Cymene, while Javin had 20, 8.7, and 8.1%. According to the variance analysis of soil chemical parameters of Nepeta eremokosmos, the three habitats had a significant difference of 0.1%. By comparing the mean parameters, it was demonstrated that the soil in Momenabad habitat is more acidic and lighter. The concentrations of OM, N, SP, P, and gypsum were elevated with 0.24%, 4.4%, 65.1%, 5.4 mg/l, and 73.9%, in comparison to other habitats. Javin habitat had an EC, K, and lime level that was 1.5 ds/m higher than those in the other two habitats by 117.4 mg/l and 31.6%. Among the environmental factors, altitude, annual precipitation, annual temperature, maximum temperature of the hottest month, N, P, K, OM, gypsum, and lime showed the most significant correlations with the vegetative traits and essential oil compounds of Nepeta eremokosmos. The conservation status of Nepeta eremokosmos in Iran is Critically Endangered, based on its occupancy of 1.250km2 and the extent of its occurrence in 69,862km2. Plant species' essential oils have biological effects that are influenced by their effective substances, which can be affected by both genetic pathways and environmental factors. The plant's chemical performance can be maximized by selecting the most appropriate chemotype based on specific goals and providing optimal environmental conditions. According to the research findings, Nepeta eremokosmos prefers steppe habitats with higher essential oil content and compounds with higher antioxidant properties. Thus, this habitat is deemed suitable for conserving and cultivating Nepeta eremokosmos.

Ferula assa-foiteda L., as one of the most significant medicinal and export plants in Iran, plays a role in the livelihood of stakeholders and the pharmaceutical industry. Over exploitation of this plant habitats and recent droughts will reduce plant density and eventually the extinction of this species in the near future. This study was conducted to identify potential habitats of this species in Isfahan province using modeling species distribution. For this purpose, during 3 years of field surveys, data of the studied species were collected from 88 presence points. Physiographic information (slope, elevation, aspect) and 19 bioclimatic variables were used in the modeling process. The potential species distribution map was produced using maximum entropy model and Geographic Information System. The results of model evaluation showed the proper performance of the model with the AUC value equal to 0.962. Analysis of variable importance using Jackknife test, showed that slope, temperature annual range, annual precipitation and precipitation of coldest quarter were identified as the most important environmental factors influencing the species distribution. Regarding the response curves to environmental factors, Ferula assa-foiteda is more likely to occure in areas with a slope of more than 70%, temperature annual range from about 37 to 43 °C, annual precipitation and precipitation of coldest quarter about 70 and 40 mm, respectively. Based on the obtained results, about 7% of the habitats of Isfahan province especially in the semi arid and steppe areas are suitable for the growth of Ferula assa-foiteda which is very important in management of rehabilitation and develop cultivation.

In order to increase the quantitative and qualitative yield of Satureja spicigera essential oil with proper plant nutrition, this study was carried out in East Azerbaijan.

This research was carried out as a randomized complete block design with eight fertilizer treatments (no fertilizer, N50, P25, K25 (kg/ha), Cow Manure (30, 60 ton/ha), Cow Manure (30, 60 ton/ha) +(kg/ha) N50, P25, K25 , Vermi-compost (5 ton/ha), Vermi-compost (5 ton/ha) +(kg/ha) N50, P25, K25) and three replications in four years (2017-2020). During the cropping season, plant height, flowering date, canopy area and green shoot yield were measured. Essential oil was extracted by distillation with distilled water and analysis of essential oil was done by gas chromatograph (GC/MS).

There was a significant difference between fertilizer treatments in terms of all traits. The main components of essential oil were thymol, parasimen and gamaterpinen, respectively. The highest yield of flowering branches at 3687 kg/ha and yield of essential oil at 54.65 kg/ha and the highest quality of essential oil (total phenolic compounds of thymol and carvacrol) at 62.59% by applying Vermi-compost5ton/ha+N50P25K25kg/ha were obtained.

Combined consumption of fertilizer treatments, especially animal manure with chemical fertilizers, in addition to increasing the yield, causes the crop to ripen early and not face the cold of early autumn. As the plant ages, the yield of the essential oil increases, but the yield is later and the quality of the essential oil decreases.

The genus Berberis belongs to the Berberidaceae family, with 15 genera and 650 species around the world. It has valuable potential in the medicinal and food industries. In this study, the phytochemical diversity of 55 fruits of the Iranian Berberis genotype were investigated. The results of this study could be used in the breeding and determination of superior genotypes in the future. Plant materials were collected from the barberry Collection Garden of Mashhad and also different natural habitats of barberry in various provinces of Iran. The samples were air-dried, finely grounded, and extracted by methanol at room temperature. Then, total phenol and total flavonoid were measured by Folin-Ciocalteu and AlCl3 assays, respectively. Radicals neutralizing effects of extracts were examined through the 2,2-Diphenyl-1- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method. The results showed a significant difference between phenolic content, flavonoid content, and antioxidant properties of various extracts, at a probability level of 1%. A methanol extract of B. integerrima × crataegina (genotype code 4-1) resulted in the highest phenolic content with an average of 4.2 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) ml-1 extract, while the lowest content was recorded for B. integerrima )genotype code 23-4) with an average of 1.7 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/ ml extract. The highest flavonoid content was observed with extracts of B. integerrima (genotype code 4-4) and B. orthobotrys × crataegina (genotype code 15-4) with an average of 6.3 mg quercetin equivalents (Q)/ ml extract. The least was recorded for B. integerrima (genotype code 23-4) with an average of 0.4 mg quercetin equivalents (Q)/ ml extract. The highest and lowest rates of free radical scavenging DPPH were 59.06% and 12.3%, respectively. The results showed that barberry has a great diversity in terms of phytochemical characteristics in different genotypes and is a valuable genetic source for breeding research.

Essential oils of the air-dried aerial parts of Teucrium orientale L. collected from 11 different localities which obtained by hydro-distillation were investigated. The essential oils were analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. The oil yields were 0.03–0.20% (w/w), based on dry weight. Forty-four components, representing 91.0–99.5% of the oils, were identified. The results showed that there is a significant difference in yields, chemical compositions and concentrations of essential oils obtained from different geographical regions. However, there are main and common compounds such as caryophyllene oxide (3.72 to 23.60%), E-caryophyllene (1.03 to 39.36%), germacrene D (0.95 to 29.7%), spathulenol (1.98 to 11.11%), β-cubebene (1.31 to 24.64%), δ-cadinene (1.14 to 4.90%), hexadecanoic acid (0.47 to 32.60%), α-cubebene (0.53 to 11.37%) and hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (0.34 to 10.56%) that are found in all essential oils. According to the cluster analysis, the populations were placed in three clusters. Percentages of hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (10.6%) and humulene epoxide II (6.8%) were considerably higher in cluster 1 compared to other clusters. Percentages α-cubebene, β-cubebene and hexadecanoic acid were considerably highest in cluster 2 with means of 7.2%, 11.9% and 20.4% respectively. Populations of cluster 3 were rich sources of E-caryophyllene (29.4%), germacrene D (16.1%) and bicyclogermacrene (3.4%) compared to other clusters.

The aerial parts essential oils of nine populations of four Nepeta species (N. straussi Hausskn. & Bornm., N. amoena Stapf., N. haussknechtii Bornm. and N. speciosa Boiss. & Noë), from Iran, were analyzed by gas chromatography, flame ionization detector (GC-FID), and mass spectrometric detection (GC/MS). In the oil of one population of N. straussi, 1,8-cineole (40.1%) was the main constituent. In contrast, the oil of the second population consisted of germacrene D (11.6%), caryophyllene oxide (11.9%), and n-nonadecane (10.3%) as major compounds. Caryophyllene oxide (36.2%) in one population and hexadecanoic acid (33.4%) in another population of N. amoena were the major compounds. In the oils of two populations of N. haussknechtii, 1,8-cineole (45.1% and 48.6%) was the main constituent, while 4aα-7α-7aα-nepetalacton (26.7%) and 1,8-cineole (24.5%) were major components in the oil of third population. In the essential oil of one population of N. speciosa, 4aα-7β-7aα-nepetalacton (74.8%) and the other population, 1,8-cineole (32.3%), were the main constituents. Therefore, in addition to variations between essential oil compositions of different Nepeta species, there are variations in the oil composition of one Nepeta species from different localities that may be due to climatic conditions or having the potential to form chemotypes.

The genus Anthemis L. is the second largest genus in the Compositae family, which consists of 39 annual and perennial species scattered throughout Iran. In this research, a species of Anthemis lorestanica Iranshahr was collected from two regions in Isfahan province, namely Makdin region (sample 1) and Badum Valley region (sample 2) in 2017.  The samples were identified in the herbarium of the Research Institute of Forests and Pastures in the Department of Botany. The essential oils were extracted from its flowers and leaves by water distillation method (Klenger method). Then the essential oil samples were measured and identified by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography connected to mass spectrometer (GC/MS). The amount of essential oil in sample 1 was 0.12% for flower and 0.08% for leaf. Major compounds in the flower consisted of methyl decanoate (18.6%), α-cadinol (11.1%), and n-tricosan (9.1%). Major compounds in leaves were neryl acetate (13.4%), α-cadinol (12.9%), and dihydro eudesmol (8.5%). Essential oil contents of sample 2 were 0.2% for flower and 0.08% for leaf. The main flower compounds included spathulenol (68.8%), dehydro-aromadendrane (5.2%), and oplopanone (3%). The main compounds of the leaves were oplopanone (12.3%), 1-icocen (11.5%), and dihydro eudesmol (10.9%).