syntax

The rhetoric, as we know it today, initially appeared in the early Islamic centuries as simple and scattered viewpoints within the margins of other disciplines such as literary criticism, Quranic interpretation, theology lexicography and syntax. It is worth noting that the autonomy of rhetoric can be attributed to the Holy Quran, with the validation of the Quran's miracles playing a pivotal role in its development. This led figures such Zamakhshari, to regard the two realms of rhetorical semantics and eloquence as exclusive to the Quran. Al-Jahiz’ Al-Bayan and Tabi'in, Abu Hilal Askari’s Al-Sanaatin: Al-Sha'ar and Katabah, and Abdul Qahir Jurjāni’s Dalal al-Ijaz and Asrar al-Balagheh contributed to the autonomy of Arabic rhetoric until Sakkāaki ultimately solidified it. Among the various fields discussing rhetorical matters is syntax, which has significantly influenced eloquence and, particularly, rhetorical semantics. Sakkaki is among the scholars who have frequently highlighted the interplay between rhetoric and syntax in Miftah al-Uloom, asserting proficiency in syntax as a prerequisite for the mastery of rhetoric. This study, employing a descriptive-analytical approach within a library-based framework, aimed to explore the relationship between syntax and rhetoric concerning omission and apposition. The findings suggest that, not only has syntax undeniably shaped rhetorical semantics, it has also affected eloquence. Many syntactic elements, including omission and appreciation, which have been incorporated into rhetorical semantics and eloquence, serve rhetorical purposes. Consequently, it is imperative to differentiate between syntactic and rhetorical omission and apposition, ensuring their qualitative distinction within rhetoric to prevent them from devolving into mere syntactic analogies.

IntroductionThe most important topic discussed in this article is the study of epic syntax based on rhyme in the Shahnameh. According to the findings of this research, epic syntax is the way language is used in the literary genre of epic. Accordingly, there is a close relationship between the epic literary genre and the language used in it. In this article, we aim to examine the role of rhyme in the formation of specific syntactic patterns in the Shahnameh based on the two rhymes of "kam and naam" and to show the effect of rhymes on the syntax of the verse and its rhetoric. Examining the rhymes in the Shahnameh that have a syntactic structure and how Ferdowsi rhymes in this work can lead us to a correct understanding of the method of verse formation and the construction of its syntactic patterns.This research seeks to answer the following questions:Does the use of conjunctions and attributive verbs in verses that have "kam va nam" rhymes affect the grammatical role of rhyme in the verse?Does the use of supplication verbs in verses that have these rhymes create a common syntax between the verses?Is the number of syntactic patterns of these rhymes in Shahnameh diverse and different? In which syntactic role is this diversity greater?The aim of this study is to examine and classify different syntactic patterns of verses from the Shahnameh with respect to the two rhymes "kam and nam".  Research MethodologyThe research method in this study was first conducted in a statistical and frequency manner and then in an analytical and descriptive manner using a library method.  DiscussAmong the rhymes that Ferdowsi used in composing the Shahnameh, the words "kam and nam" are used in 151 rhymes. In this study, we placed these rhymes in 5 semantic perspectives and examined them in terms of syntax. One of the most widely used patterns of "nam and kaam" is the predicate + relative verb + predicate, in which Ferdowsi mentions the names of people and places. In some cases, the verb of the sentence is irrelevant and the "nam" is placed in the object position, while the second stanza is still an explanation of the first stanza. In these verses, the second stanzas are adjectives whose rhetorical role can be to further introduce a character. In the third stanza, "nam and kaam" are placed in the position of rhyme, while Ferdowsi's purpose in using this rhyme is to ask someone's name and surname, and in the second stanza, "kaam" means desire and wish, and finally, the fourth and fifth stanzas include the most diverse syntactic patterns.  ConclusionIn his work, Ferdowsi has a special treatment of the syntax of verses and rhymes, which we called "epic syntax" in this research. Based on the two rhymes of "kaam and nam", we sought to analyze the syntactic role and common pattern of verses and examined it based on five perspectives.Based on the findings of this research, whenever Ferdowsi uses a conjunction in a verse; the rhyme “nam and kaam” is placed in the position of the predicate. In all the verses of the first perspective and the first pattern of this perspective, we witness conjunctions, while in the second pattern, which is among the most widely used patterns, we encounter more conjunctions.Among all the verses that rhyme with "nam and kaam," there are only three verses that have a prayerful content, and the syntax of the two stanzas is also similar.In the third perspective, Ferdowsi's purpose in using the rhyme "nam" is to ask for a person's name; and the rhyme "kaam" in the second stanza means desire and wish. The notable point is that about 60 percent of the verses that are included in this perspective are in the stories "Kamos Keshani and Rostam and Esfandiar".

In this article, the writers have tried to study the syntactic structures of the first headlines of Ettela’at newspaper. Using these structures determined the writing style of the newspaper in two different periods The main research questions are as follows: "What syntactic features can be introduced as stylistic components to examine the writing style of the first headlines of the newspaper?" and " What has changed in these features of the Ettela'at newspaper of 1978 and 2020?" For this purpose, after giving an introduction regarding the importance, reason and how to choose the subject, Some previous related researches have been mentioned as background. Then, The research method and method of collecting data, choosing sample and categorizing the samples is provided. After that, since the article is related to both stylistics and generative grammar, a brief description of these topics are presented as a theoretical framework. In the discussion section, according to the examples provided, such things as the use of noun phrases and independent sentences, the use of verbs with imperative mood and subjunctive mood, the Relative rate of using of extraposition processes and topicalization, and the number of conjuncts are examined. It is found that there are significant differences in the first news headlines of this newspaper in 1978 and 2020 based on the mentioned cases. We also concluded that the tendency of journalists in 2020 to use finite clauses as the first headline, the use of subjunctive mood, and the use of extraposition was greater than in 1978. We also found that the tendency to use topicalization and the use of conjuncts in news headlines was higher in 1978 than in 2020.

Syntax refers to the poet's skill in arranging the components of a phrase in a balanced and proportionate manner. The eloquence of a sentence is an essential aspect of artistic expression, particularly in poetry and poetic prose, as well as in any form of word-based art. This refers to the skillful manipulation of sentence components. The syntactic options of any language are the most constrained alternatives. When constructing a sentence, we have the freedom to choose any word in the language to begin our statement. However, this initial decision narrows down the options for succeeding words in the sentence. We engage in this practice because, within the vast array of classes that might be grammatically positioned in this particular category of the speech sequence, certain classes are harmonious with the initial word while others are not. Conversely, syntax is the most adaptable and flexible area of language studies. Generally, prominent Iranian and Islamic rhetoric theorists, such as "Jorjani," focus on both themselves and the subject of syntax, envisioning rhetoric and its impact on the syntactic structures of language. People widely regard Zeydari's book Nafsat Al Masdur as a highly significant work in Persian history and literature. Shahab Zeydari authored this book four years subsequent to his sojourn in Meyafarikîn, during which he acquired knowledge regarding the conclusion of Sultan Jalal al-Din's tenure as complaint lyrics. The book elucidates the challenges that beset the Sultan towards the end of his rule, as well as the author's own tribulations.

The interface between morphology and syntax has been a disputed issue among linguists. The main goal of this research is to investigate the interface between morphology and syntax and represent the existence of interaction between these two structural modules of language. Therefore, we have studied two productive word formation processes in the language of science. One of them is the result of the module of morphology, but we can assign a syntactic substructure to it. The other one is itself a syntactic entity, but it shows some morphological behaviors. These two processes are respectively noun incorporation and the formation of syntactic phrases. For this purpose, 500 terms from the first dictionary of a collection of terms approved by the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, and 500 terms from the sixteenth dictionary of a collection of terms have been chosen randomly and studied in this research. The main framework of this research is the interactional approach. We have also utilized additional tools from other theoretical approaches, such as constructional schemas in construction morphology. The research conducted in this essay depicts the definitions of incorporating nouns, in the dictionaries, to confirm their syntactic structure. On the other hand, losing some syntactic markers in syntactic phrases demonstrates the lexicalization of these structures. This study showed that incorporating nouns had a greater diversity of constructional schemas than syntactic phrases. However, the productivity of syntactic phrases was higher in comparison to incorporating nouns. Furthermore, the usage of syntactic phrases had increased in the ten-year period. As a result, the overall trend was ascending.

In Persian, which adheres to an SOV word order, complement clauses or prepositional objects typically follow the direct object in their conventional position. However, there is the potential to move this phrase to different positions within the sentence. However, this phrase can be moved to other positions in a sentence. Multiple explanations exist for this phenomenon. One such explanation is within Lexical-Functional Grammar, suggesting that the relocated constituent finds its place within lexical entries. More specifically, event-related potential (ERP) was used to investigate this processing in the centro-parietal part of the brain (for the for N400 and P600 components) following the Friedrici model of language comprehension (1995). This research aims to investigate how wh-complement displacement in Persian is processed within the verb's lexical entry using event-related potentials, rooted in the syntactic-semantic role structure. Specifically, this study focuses on the N400 central-anterior component, as introduced by Friedrich in the field of language processing in 1995. Given Persian's rich inflection, which permits various word orders, we examined four distinct positions for complement clauses in the sentences under study, constructing 50 sentences for each condition. These sentence conditions were thoughtfully designed based on consistent word length and syntactic category. To delve deeper into the verb's lexical entry, we presented sentences in a structured format on a display screen and provided comprehensive explanations to participants before the experiment. Participants were instructed to articulate words without any lip or facial movement. Brain responses were recorded as event-related potentials during reading and subsequently analyzed using MATLAB software with EEGlaB. The results reveal that complement clause displacement triggers distinct brain responses within the lexical entry of verbs, marked by an increased N400 amplitude in the central-anterior region when the complement clause is in its canonical position. These findings lead to the conclusion that the movement of the complementizer in Persian follows a Lexical-Functional grammar within the neurophysiological model put forth by by Friedrich's model of syntactic processing .The main conclusions to be drawn from these bits of evidence are the displacement of the Wh-complement in lexical entries of verb in Persian has a neurophysiological basis.

The nineteenth century can be considered a time when modern Arab thought formed, and contemporary linguistic research was also born in line with other Arab intellectual fields. Modernist linguists presented their new findings, derived from contemporary linguistic approaches to the Arabic-speaking readership. Despite different reactions often based on sanctifying their traditional linguistic heritage, they established a distinct and independent structure for contemporary Arab linguistics. On the one hand, it was based on ancient theoretical foundations and on the other hand, it was compatible with modern Western approaches in linguistics. Ibrahim Mustafa and Mehdi Makhzoumi are contemporary Arab linguists who adopted a new viewpoint on linguist research and Arabic syntax. This study attempted to delve into the books Ehya Al-nahw (Syntax Revival) by Ibrahim Mustafa and Fi Al-Nahw Alarabi; Naqd Wa Tawjih (On Arabic Syntax: Criticism and Guidance) by Mehdi Makhzoumi. The study tried to comparatively study the linguistic point of view, foundations, and intellectual origins of these two grammarians based on methodological criticism. The results showed that Ibrahim Mustafa, although he does not have a linguistic approach, is looking for the revival of syntax and has been trying to abolish the agent theory in Arabic grammar. But Mehdi Makhzoumi takes a text-linguistic approach and emphasizes the sentence in Arabic syntax. Most contemporary Arab linguists, relying on the necessity of making fundamental changes in Arabic syntax to get rid of traditional syntax, could criticize some of it with their scientific and experimental knowledge and provide accurate, scientific, novel viewpoints theoretically and practically.

The German language has four grammatical cases: Nominative (Nominativ)– subject, Accusative (Akkusativ)– direct object, Dative (Dativ)– indirect object, and Genitive (Genitiv)– possessive. Grammatical case is mostly responsible for determining the syntactic-semantic relations in the sentence. In languages that have a relatively free sequence of words, case can pave the way to recognize grammatical relations and understand semantic relationships. Grammatical case is formed in two ways: 1. case government/ rection, and 2. case congruence. Case government/ rection is the syntactic relationship between two linguistic phrases. That is to say that the first linguistic element determines the grammatical features of the second linguistic element that is dependent on it. In the German language, four lexical categories determine grammatical case: verb, preposition, adjective and noun. In the second type of grammatical case assignment, the noun phrase takes the grammatical case of another noun phrase without being dependent on it. Case congruence is observed in predictive nominal phrases, conjunctive phrases and apposition. There exists, however, yet another grammatical case which is called "free case". The complications related to free case, which will be discussed in the present paper, are due to the fact that the reason for its appearance in the sentence is not clear, and it is often considered by language learners as a direct object. In this research, in addition to introducing free case and its types, the ways of distinguishing this type of grammatical case from the grammatical case that are granted through lexical elements in the sentence are shown. It is sought to investigate the extent to which language learners are familiar with free case and whether they can distinguish the syntactic functions formed through free case from those dependent on the verb of the sentence. It is hypothesized that lack of knowledge about free case would make language learners face problems in recognizing syntactic functions. Therefore, in the experimental phase of this study, two groups of language learners were asked to participate in a related test.

Background of Study:

In a book titled "Grammatical Case" Sahel, (2018) has discussed in detail the various dimensions of case. In this book, in addition to discussing topics such as case government, case congruence, and the relationship between semantic roles and grammatical case, the writer also discusses how grammatical case is learned by children. Czepluch (1996) compared grammatical case in German and English languages. On the other hand, Dürscheid (1999) tried to provide a comprehensive definition and description of grammatical case from the point of view of syntax and meaning. Also, Einsenbeiß (1994) addressed the relationship between grammatical case and word sequence in the German language and examined the learning of these issues in the first language. Marks (2014) discussed the issue of teaching grammar to immigrant students and the difficulties faced by language teachers. Also, Vater (2006) referred to the issue of features of the grammatical case in the construction of apposition, and, in 2015, in another study, examined the issue of changes and fluctuations in the grammatical case in contemporary German. In her doctoral thesis, Egorova (2006) discussed the issue of grammatical case in German language, examining the adverbial role of direct and indirect objects in nominal groups and their corresponding grammatical cases. 

With the aim of applying this research, the main part of the present article, which is focused on the distinction between different grammatical cases in the German language, was investigated through data collection. To this end, 28 undergraduate students in the field of German language and literature at Shahid Beheshti University were invited to participate in the test. The students were divided into two groups of fourteen participants. The experimental group consisted of 14 students (nine female and five male students in the age range of 19 to 30 years). The experimental group participants who were at the end of their fifth semester participated in a 90-minute face-to-face session in the course "Advanced German Linguistics" and learned about "Free Case in German Language". The control group also included 14 students (ten female and four male students in the age range of 18 to 26 years). The students in the control group, who were at the end of their third semester when they participated in the test, had only learned about the structure of the German language in the courses "Grammatical Analysis" and "Basics of Linguistics". After the training of the experimental group, both groups participated in the test which consisted of three sections. In the first section of the test, six sentences were presented and the participants were asked to identify the direct object of the verb. In the second part, five sentences were presented and the participants were asked to determine the indirect object of the verb. In the third and final part of the test, seven sentences were presented to the participants and they were asked to determine the object related to the verb of the sentence. In the end, the results obtained from both groups in all three sections were analyzed.

In the present study, free grammatical case in German language was discussed. Case government and case congruence were also introduced through various examples. It was shown in what cases the free grammatical case of the direct object, which takes the grammatical role of the adverb, is manifested. Also, the types of grammatical case of the free indirect object were delved into. Next, in addition to introducing the grammatical case of the indirect object, it was also pointed out that this grammatical case shares a common feature with the grammatical case of the direct object, in which both of them play the grammatical role of the adverb in the sentence. Next, with the aim of applying this research, the main part of the present study, which is focused on the distinction between different grammatical cases in the German language, was examined in a data-oriented way. To this end, examples of all three grammatical Oblique case were given to the experimental and control groups. The results revealed that in all cases, the number of correct answers by the participants of the experimental group who were familiar with the types of free grammatical cases was more compared to the control group. It was also found that familiarizing language learners with the free grammatical case will help them distinguish between the grammatical functions of adverbs and the grammatical functions of verbs.

One of the points that has not been paid attention to in the subject of rhyme and line is what is the difference between the use of rhyme and line in different literary genres and whether the poet in different literary types (epic, lyrical and didactic) uses Has he commented on the difference in its literary type from the rhyme and the line or not? Although important works such as al-Mujajm Shams Qais Razi and al-Khawaja Nasir al-Din Tusi"s poetry standards and other prominent works in this field are important as the initiators of these sciences, none of these works have mentioned the important relationship between rhyme, row and their use in a specific literary type. and the main focus of these works has always been on rhyme and line as a means of creating music. This research has investigated, analyzed and compared 1279 verses from the two love poems of Weiss and Ramin with the love story of Bijan and Manijeh in the discussion of rhyme and line. The purpose of this research is to show the behavior of these two poets with rhyme and line and their use in lyrical and epic genres.

The research method in this study is descriptive and analytical, which was done in a library form by studying sources, taking notes and classifying the materials.

The special place of rhyme and line in the structure of verse helps to understand and analyze it in the history of various developments of Persian poetry, and by examining these influential elements in verse, we can get valuable results in the analysis of verses and the poet"s style of verse making. He achieved in his type and literary style.

In this research, by extracting the rhymes and rows of verses of these two love stories, we showed that Ferdowsi, unlike Fakhruddin Asad Gorgani, uses rhymes and nominal rows in his verses, and deliberately moves his syntax away from standard syntax, and although a story He narrates a romance, but in no part of his work, he does not leave the epic genre and the unnatural language, while on the other hand, Gorgani is loyal to the natural language by using more current rhymes.

Arabic syntax or grammar is considered one of the most important subjects in the undergraduate course as well as in additional courses for non-Arabic speakers. The way of teaching this subject has always been mixed with many difficulties, and students and learners always point to the strictness and uniformity of the rules, dry and inactive teaching methods, and issues like this. In this essay, while emphasizing on separating the two categories of scientific syntax and educational syntax, traditional strategies have been mentioned and their merits and demerits have been considered. In addition to that, new strategies have been proposed for the use of professors, and their advantages and disadvantages have also been investigated. The result of this research is that we should pay more attention to its practical aspects while avoiding teaching unnecessary syntactical topics, and use new and collaborative strategies to improve the teaching-learning process.Teaching Arabic language, syntax, teaching strategies

Undoubtedly, one who pursues linguistic research finds that these studies pursue a particular goal in every way. Based on this, ancient linguistic studies were more religious in nature, and they were summarized in the preservation of the Holy Qur'an and its avoidance. Among these studies, it is possible to point out that the Mu'tazilite sectarian studies have not convinced the apparent aspects of their language, according to their eternal thinking.They believed that a large part of the language needed to be interpreted to understand the author's intentions. And Zamzakhri, who was at the head of the Mu'tazilite viewpoint, did not pay enough attention to the apparent aspect of the text, syntax, mere, sound, mementos, etc., but he Blended its rational and non-linguistic views of the apparent aspect of language. Therefore, by adopting a descriptive and analytical method, this paper tries to analyze and interpret the syntactic views of Zamakhshari in the commentary of the schisma, which is sometimes a mixture of reason, by bringing Quranic evidence from Sura Āl ʻImrān's. Keywords Zamakhshari- apparent texture of language- rational view- syntax- syntactic criterion.    IntroductionIn the past, the prevailing method in critical studies has been a position between descriptive and normatif. According to the ancients, normatif does not mean the loss of the descriptive method, but for them it means normatif method mixed with the descriptive, and of course their approach is more following the philosophers. Greek is like Aristotle and Plato, and they take help from them in critical studies.What is noteworthy in this context is that Criterionist linguists start from generalities and leave details to create rules and hypotheses,and they basically rely on the rule and avoid description and for what is out of the norm, they resort to interpretation, and if they encounter a problem in interpretation, they consider it rare and rare. (Zoin, 23:1986).according to this, Zamakhshri as a result Intellectual and Mu'tazili teachings He is inclined towards a normatif method and the apparent level of his language does not convince him. But He argues that when the meaning is linked to the divine words, the "Holy Qur'an", its complexity increases and the apparent meaning is not enough for us. Because he believes that the objective theory, whose goal is to identify the essential with the divine nature, It occupies the place of the sign. And this means that Qur'anic text based on the meaning related to the signifier The non-appearance of the language is arranged. It is from this point of view that Zamakhshari argues that the meaning of the sentence is not determined only by the appearance of the language. Rather, there is a set of codified laws among the Arabs Familiarity with them is necessary to extract the desired meaning and avoid neglecting the meaning. Whatever it is, its meaning is not as clear as some think Rather, "every word is surrounded by shades of different psychological and emotional meanings And it gives temporary colors of emotions and imagination, which expresses its expressive value. (Zoin, 1986, 92) So Zamakhshari tends to "a descriptive method mixed with a criterion to determine the meaning of the Qur'an" (Al-Juvini, 1961: 95).ConclusionWe conclude that Zamakhshari is the one who puts syntax in front of his eyes, but when he feels the need to achieve the desired meaning, he discards it and takes help from rational analysis or what is outside the text. Therefore, it can be said that standard syntax is mixed with rational reason according to Zamakhshari. And it has a great impact on extracting meaning. He acts rightly by relying on reason, and sometimes he may act arbitrarily or as if he made a mistake.

In different periods of the history of Persian literature, the art of conflict or answer has been prevalent among poets, especially famous poets of each period. Some of these controversies were confined to the realm of imitation, and others were able to achieve a desirable degree of technical value through the innovations of their creators. A study of books of poems which is called divan, shows that the relationship of poets sometimes occupies a significant part of their poems. One .e.g. of this relationship is the technique of conflict or response. One of these conflicts is the conflict between Homam tabrizi and Saadi shirazi. Examining sources such as Tarikh Gozideh, Muns al-Ahrar, Tazkira al-Shoara, etc. shows that the debate between Homam and Saadi has a history among the ancients. Some of the oldest sources that have mentioned Homam's conflicts with Saadi which is addressed in this research are:The jong that was kept in the library of Lala Ismail in Turkey and was written in 741-742 AH by several scribes, the safine of Shams Haji which was written in 741 AH by a man named Muhammad known as Shams Haji and is now kept in the NafezPasha Library of Turkey and an ancient manuscript from the Divan of Shams Tabrizi, which was written in 739 AH by Ali Shah ibn Ali Sa'iq Esfahani and is now kept in the library of Ayatollah Marashi in Qom. In these manuscripts, the contradictions of Homam and Saadi are explicitly mentioned. For example, the jong of Lala Isma'il has mentioned the sonnets of Sa'di and Homam as the "Contradictions" between Sa'di and Homam. Also in the old Divan of Homam, some of Homam's sonnets and Saadi's sonnets have came together. In the present study, based on these contradictions in the mentioned manuscript and with the help of statistical method, we tried to enumerate the similarities and differences between Homam and Saadi by comparing the domains of vocabulary and syntax. Indeed this thesis was investigated the words construction, non-persian words, verbs construction, particles, deletion, shifting pronouns, presentation and delay of sentence components. At last, we examined the lexical structures of each and found that Saadi paid more attention to the types of words and the variety and novelty of the lexical structures than to Homam. We found that the syntactic structures in Saadi's sonnets are more solid. For example Saadi has more deletations than Homam which made his poetry more concise. Also Homam moved the parts of the sentence more than saadi which caused it to deviate from the standard syntax. Also, statistical charts are drawn using Excel software to display the results of the research in one place.

During the second half of the 20th century, looking to the language as the basic raw material of the literature, leads to overlapping some of the achievements of Discourse Analysis and Sociocriticism. In fact, getting an internal approach to the literary text in order to degage its sociality, and focusing on the discourse in the context of social involved situation, these are the common bases of the two analytic methods. Therefore, Pierre V. Zima introduces his approach as the “sociology of the text” and believes that the social questions could appear through the languages, sociolects and discourses, as well as the lexicon, semantics and syntax could have a social function. In the present article, we aim to analyze the social function of the semantics and the syntax inside the novel Ace Heart by Moniru Ravanipur to find out the interdiscursive relation between the text and the surrounding society.

The problem of deduction in the science of principles of syntax has a great role in the argument of the syntactical issues in the process of construction of rules of language. Principles of syntax consist of hearing, deduction, consensus and intellectual association and dominate the science of syntax in the domain of Arabic linguistics. Deduction as the second source of the principles of syntax, after hearing (i.e. consideration of the heard and its induction) has been taken into account by the grammarians since time immemorial. Deductive approach or argument by deduction represents the reason based effort for legalization of the syntactical problems. The contributions of the great Iranian and non-Iranian grammarians to this problem as well as the efforts of two great scholars of syntax including Ibn Anbari (b. 577 A.H.) who has been himself the pioneer of the division of deduction into the deduction of cause, deduction by analogy and deduction by refutation in his Lumah Al-Adillah inspired us to engage in a descriptive-analytic study using the extant linguistic sources and data to assay and analyze a number of parallel syntactical discussions in Ibn Anbari’s Asrar Al-Arabyyah and Ibn Yayish of Mosul’s Sharh Al-Mufasal Zamakhshari (b. 643 A.H.). The findings of this study suggest that both scholars of syntax have explained the syntactical rules by way of deduction though Ibn Anbari despite of his being the inventor of the classification of deduction has almost used the deduction by analogy in his book which is of a lesser scientific value in the explanation of syntactical rules as compared to the deduction by cause. But Ibn Yayish has made use of the deduction by cause in his explanations and arguments and in a more powerful way. It needs to be mentioned that neither Ibn Anbari nor Ibn Yayish has noted the type of the deduction used. The author of the present essay has classified the ideas and debates of these two scholars based on different forms of deduction and preferred Ibn Yayish’s approach in view of its use of deduction by cause given its argumentative power in the explanation of syntactical rules over against Ibn Anbari’s deduction by analogy. Keywords: Science of Principles of Syntax, Deduction, Types of Cause (Cause, Analogy, Refutation), Ibn Anbari, Asrar Al Arabyah, Ibn Yayish, Sharh Al MufasalAssessment and Analysis of Types of Causes in Deduction (Cause, Analogy and Refutation) A Case Study of the Syntactical Views of Ibn Anbari in Asrar Al-Arabyah (Secrets of Arabic) and Ibn Yayish in Sharh Al Mufasal (Unabridged Commentary)AbstractThe problem of deduction in the science of principles of syntax has a great role in the argument of the syntactical issues in the process of construction of rules of language. Principles of syntax consist of hearing, deduction, consensus and intellectual association and dominate the science of syntax in the domain of Arabic linguistics. Deduction as the second source of the principles of syntax, after hearing (i.e. consideration of the heard and its induction) has been taken into account by the grammarians since time immemorial. Deductive approach or argument by deduction represents the reason based effort for legalization of the syntactical problems. The contributions of the great Iranian and non-Iranian grammarians to this problem as well as the efforts of two great scholars of syntax including Ibn Anbari (b. 577 A.H.) who has been himself the pioneer of the division of deduction into the deduction of cause, deduction by analogy and deduction by refutation in his Lumah Al-Adillah inspired us to engage in a descriptive-analytic study using the extant linguistic sources and data to assay and analyze a number of parallel syntactical discussions in Ibn Anbari’s Asrar Al-Arabyyah and Ibn Yayish of Mosul’s Sharh Al-Mufasal Zamakhshari (b. 643 A.H.). The findings of this study suggest that both scholars of syntax have explained the syntactical rules by way of deduction though Ibn Anbari despite of his being the inventor of the classification of deduction has almost used the deduction by analogy in his book which is of a lesser scientific value in the explanation of syntactical rules as compared to the deduction by cause. But Ibn Yayish has made use of the deduction by cause in his explanations and arguments and in a more powerful way. It needs to be mentioned that neither Ibn Anbari nor Ibn Yayish has noted the type of the deduction used. The author of the present essay has classified the ideas and debates of these two scholars based on different forms of deduction and preferred Ibn Yayish’s approach in view of its use of deduction by cause given its argumentative power in the explanation of syntactical rules over against Ibn Anbari’s deduction by analogy. Keywords: Science of Principles of Syntax, Deduction, Types of Cause (Cause, Analogy, Refutation), Ibn Anbari, Asrar Al Arabyah, Ibn Yayish, Sharh Al Mufasal

The structure of sentences and the order of words are two representative factors of the syntactic style of an author which are highly useful in explaining his personal style. Understanding the personal style of each author can be very helpful for readers in understanding the themes of his/her texts, knowing the character of the author and identifying his/her personal characteristics. Ghaem Magham Farahani is one of the greatest writers of the Qajar period whose personal style distinguishes him from his contemporary writers.
 


Using the approach and theory of layer stylistics and the method of discourse analysis, the researchers have undertaken the study of syntactic level of the 45th letter in Ghaem Magham Farahani’s Monasha’at. They have attempted to identify the connection between meaning and the syntactic level in this text, and to explain to the readers what the syntactic factors are in this letter and how the syntactic structure of the text helps its theme.


One of the most famous literary figures in Qajar period is Ghaem Magham Farahani, the Grand Vizier to Mohammad Shah Qajar. Thanks to his talent, artistry, and dedication, Ghaem Magham managed to write about the issues of his time in his Monsha’at with the use of a colloquial language and a literary texture which is more often than not compared with Sa’di’s Gulistan, since like Sa’di’s masterpiece, it is full of Arabic words, anecdotes, and proverbs. When these factors are combined with folklore literature, the result is a pleasant, attractive and dynamic prose. In a word, “Ghaem Magham is the Sa’di of his time” (Shamisa, 2014: 282). In Ghaem Magham’s prose, one can distinguish three styles: simple, intermediate and complicated, which have been very common in the previous periods. The prose contains Quranic verses, religious fables and hadiths which are signs of prolixity in texts (Khatibi, 2007: 58). One can also find elements of conciseness in sentences and the avoidance of complexity which are manifestations of simple and straightforward style (Rastegar Fasaei, 2018: 243). However, the most frequent style used in his writings is the simple style which is a recreation of the ancient simple and straightforward prose (Rahimian, 2008: 12), since his texts are intended to be simple and devoid of complexities in style and meaning.
It is the aim of stylistics to study the characteristics of texts with the attention to different linguistic periods, and then analyze these characteristics in relation to the authors who have used them in their texts. Accordingly, by analyzing the works of a writer or a period, researchers of stylistics can reveal many aspects about the texts, such as the perspective of the author, the social condition of the period, the discourse of the age, the orientation of the writer, creativities or imitations in the style of the writer, the author’s ideology and the dominant ideology of the period. However, due to the high number of these stylistic characteristics in the texts, the researchers have divided them into 5 categories and study each category independently. These five levels are phonetic, lexical, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels. Each of these levels are again divided into several sublevels which eventually make up the meta-levels when combined with each other. Syntax is the study of the relationship between linguistic forms in sentences, structure, order, syntagmatic and paradigmatic levels. The analysis of the syntactic level makes the reader capable of discovering the relationship between the syntactic structure and the thematic structure of a text. Some of the issues discussed on this level are the structure of the sentences, the length of the sentences, the order of sentences, moods in adverbs, adjectives and verbs, the verb tenses, adjuncts, the use of Arabic words and expressions. The researchers have undertaken the analysis of these elements in letter number 45 of Monsha’at by Mirza Abol-Ghasem Farahani.
 


The structure of sentences and clauses and the order of words in any text are representatives of the grammatical and syntactic style of that text which eventually lead the reader or the researcher of the linguistic behaviors to identifying the personal style of the writer. The analysis of the items under study showed that there is a relationship between the syntactic principles and the themes of the text. In this research, we studied the length of the sentences and analyzed the relationship between sentences from different perspectives. The findings showed that short sentences are used more than long sentences in this letter, which means that Ghaem Magham has used them for accelerating the expression of his thoughts. Short sentences are proper vehicles for transferring the purpose of the writer to the audience; however, whenever necessary, the writer has used longer sentences to explain and describe more. Therefore, the high frequency of short and concise sentences with independent thoughts in each sentence is indicative of the preference of meaning over verbosity in the mind of the writer and, as mentioned before, accelerates the expression of meaning. From among the four types of links in the sentences of this letter, the two types of equivalent and intertwined are more frequent than the other two, dependent and independent links. The use of these links brings more coherence and stronger relationship between the parts of the text and their meaning. The study of moods in this letter led to identifying Ghaem Magham’s ideology and individual character. In this regard, the findings show that in verbs, the indicative mood are more frequently used than imperative and subjunctive moods. This delineates that the writer of the letter has intended to narrate the incidents and phenomena; therefore, it reveals Ghaem Magham’s certainty in his text. The study of the mood in adverbs show his close relationship with the incidents; while the study of the mood in adjectives show the writer’s tendency toward different factors and people which usually express his power and certainty.

The aim of this paper was to find out what kind of possible linguistic changes may occur during translating a certain English text into Persian. For this reason, two passages, each one composed of approximately fourteen lines, were translated. Passage Num.1 was chosen from the book MAN AND HIS WORLD, and passage Num.2 from act one, scene one of the play ROMEO AND JULIET by Shakespeare. The motivation behind this was to study the linguistic/grammatical behavior of the two languages toward developing the same literary and half-scientific ideas. In addition, we tried to meet the goal from a contrastive analysis point of view. After careful comparison of the original texts with their translations, considerable differences were observed. These differences were grouped into three major levels: morphology, syntax, and semantics. In the end, based on the limitation of the passages, it was concluded that various linguistic behaviors can be observed in the levels already mentioned, while translating a text from English into Persian. Finally, based on and within the limitation of the passages selected, it was concluded that various linguistic behaviors can be observed in the levels already mentioned, during translating a text from English into Persian.On the other hand, this article is based on the contrastive analysis hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, the researcher, with the tools at his disposal, finds the possibility to correctly describe the two languages ​​in question and use the resulting descriptions to determine the existing contrasts or differences between two languages. Learning a second language basically requires overcoming the differences between the two linguistic systems of the first language and the target language.

A constituent is a chain or structure made up of one or more words, which function as a whole i.e. a single unit, in syntactic operations. Almost all syntactic operations are applied to constituents. Any failure to detect them properly will not only lead to structural ambiguity but also make the analysis of the syntactic processes virtually impossible. It is here that a strong need is felt for a special device to detect the structures. Constituency tests are tools applied in the formal syntactic tradition and hence, in Minimalism, for the detection of constituents and the borderlines between them. So far, constituency tests and their applications in syntactic analyses have been substantially discussed in English resources on syntax (Radford, 1997; 2006; 2009; Carnie, 2001; Kim & Sells, 2007; Tallerman, 2011), but they have only been occasionally and briefly addressed in Persian sources although constituent detection is one of the first steps in fundamental syntactic investigations.Tests such as coordination, ellipsis, topicalization clefting, sentence fragment etc. have been frequently discussed in terms of how successful they are in detecting main categorical constituents. The results show that these tests are not absolute devices for the detection of borders between constituents. In other words, not all of them are successful in detecting all constituents. On the other hand, their efficiency may vary cross-linguistically. For example, as Hosseini-Maasoum (2022) puts it, a test like coordination is equally successful in Persian and English while a test like topicalization may be more efficient in English than in Persian.