مجله تحقیقات حمایت و حفاظت جنگلها و مراتع ایران
سال بیست و یکم شماره 2 (پیاپی 42، پاییز و زمستان 1402)

Environmental problems and challenges are one of the most important concerns and preoccupations of humans in the third millennium. Pastures are crucial components of the enviroment and natural resources, yet they have endured significant destruction in recent decades. For this reason, in recent years, restoration and protection projects and plans have been implemented in different countries. However, due to various reasons, livestock farmers, as the most important beneficiaries of this sector, did not participate much. Therefore, the main idea of this research was to discover the challenges of participation of livestock farmers in this sector. In this regard, this study was conducted with the general aim of investigating the challenges of livestock farmers' participation in pasture protection plans and projects in Kurdistan province in 2022.  

This research is quantitative in nature. In relation to its practical purpose, it involved field research for data collection and was conducted as a single-section study in terms of time. The statistical population of the research comprised all livestock farmers in the Saral region of Kurdistan province. Saral district, spanning 1000 km2, is situated in western Iran within Kurdistan province. The region experiences an average annual rainfall of 480 mm, characterized by a cold, semi-arid climate. Saral features sandy loam soils, well-suited for grazing livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. Ecologically, Saral district serves as a secure habitat for a diverse range of plants and animals. Notably, this natural region has yet to be thoroughly and systematically studied, with a majority of research focusing on the regions plant and animal species rather than the factors contributing to degradation. The primary occupation of people in the Saral region is animal husbandry, marking it as one of Irans most susceptible areas for this practice. The study utilized a sample size of 385 individuals, determined by the Karjesi and Morgan table, employing a muli-stage sampling method with proportional allocation. The primary research tool, a questionnaire, was validated by a panel of experts, and its reliability was confirmed through Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Data analysis involved both descriptive and inferential statistics using SPSS and Lisrel software. 

The results of the coefficient of variation showed that the challenges of "not being familiar with forest protection methods" and "not holding workshops and training courses for livestock farmers" were the most important factors. In addition, the results of the exploratory factor analysis classified the challenges of participation of livestock farmers in pasture protection projects into four socio-cultural factors (15.021 percent), educational challenges (14.364 percent), managerial and legal challenges (13.324 percent), and economic challenges (9.521 percent), and these factors could explain 52.23 percent of the total variance of the factors. Considering that educational factors were one of the most important challenges in this field, it is suggested that policy makers and natural resource planners should pay more attention to the category of ranchers' education, because many ranchers do not have much knowledge of appropriate conservation behaviors.

This study marks the inaugural effort in western Iran to safeguard rangelands. Previous studies on pasture conservation have often overlooked pastoralists, who maintain a close connection with these areas. Livestock farmers are pivotal in pastur protection, given their intimate ties to this sector. With appropriate training, they have the potential to make substantial contributions to the sustainability of this crucial domain.

  The abiotic stress factors such as decrease in the rainfall can be led to outbreak of pests and diseases and decrease in the trees growth. It is necessary to establish investigations to identify the causal agents in the decline forests. Therefore, adaptive monitoring improves management decisions by providing information on pest population levels and can be used in identifying high-risk areas pest and disease outbreaks to focus on future management efforts. Accurate identification of species is the first step in an effective pest management program. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify and introduce the leaf-eating species of oak in the Sarsakhti Forest Reserve of Markazi province with precision. One of the most important pests of oak trees in Iran is Porthesia melania Stgr. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). In this research, we, for the first time, report P. melania of its occurrence in Sarsakhti Forest Reserve from Markazi province.

Sarsakhti Oak Forest Reserve is about 200 ha in area that is located in Markazi province with a distance of 10 kilometers from Shazand city. In this research, for the first time, Sarsakhti Forest Reserve was investigated and regularly monitored during 2019-2022. The Zobeiri method was used in sampling, so that 10 lines were drawn on the map of the reserve. The location of the first sampling was randomly selected and other sampling lines were determined systematically. Among 10 lines, 4 lines and at least 10 trees were sampled in each line. By observing the amount of damage on each tree and calculating the average, we determined the amount of damage. The damage index ranges from zero (indicating no damage) to 5 (representing maximum damage).

Porthesia melania was observed in the year 2020-2022 in the oak reserve of the Markazi province of Iran. In April, when the weather warms up in this region, the wintering larvae, third instar larvae (seldom forth instar larvae) become active and feed on the young buds and leaves. At this time (early spring), the pest damage is more common, because the trees have few leaves and the larvae of the pest are hungry due to wintering, also in older instars (instars 4 and 5) they need to feed more. The adult insects appear in June. After the mating, the female moth lays her eggs preferably on the underside of the leaf, and covers the eggs with the hairs of the lower part of the abdomen. After the eggs hatch, the young larvae feed on the parenchyma of the leaves. Third-instar larvae hibernate from September to April of the following year and are inactive during this time. In summer, the first to third instar larvae are active and usually, they only feed on the upper surface leaf parenchyma, so the damage is less at this time.

Porthesia melania Stgr. can be extensive feeding damage on heavily infested oak trees. As a result of the leaf-eating activity of P. melania, the trees become devoid of the leaves and with the loss of energy sources, the tree gradually weakens and becomes susceptible to the attack of wood-eating and bark-eating pests. This pest has an outbreak every few years and it is capable for causing a severe damage. The optimal approach for pest management involves collecting larval nests from infested trees during late fall and early spring, before the larvae emerge from their winter shelter.

The Hyrcanian region is damaged every year by various factors. Pests are also one of the most important factors causing large-scale damage to the forest cover in the north of the country. Morimus verecundus, is one of the most important pests of Beech, Alder and other forest trees in Iran.

In this research, the biology of this insect was studied on alder and beech wood specimens in laboratory and field conditions in Golestan province during 2000-2005. Studies in the laboratory were conducted based on a completely randomized design in 12 replications and each breeding cage (containing a pair of adult male and female insects) was considered as a replication. The test conditions in this research were 25±5 °C., 60±5% R.H, 14:10 L.D. Field studies in the main centers of pollution in the two stations of Derazno and Jafarabad forests started in the second half of the March. Studies in the field were conducted based on a completely randomized design in 50 replications and each tree trunk enclosed by a net was considered as a replication. To investigate the life cycle of the pest at the time of the pest's activity in the spring, a number of infected logs were taken to the laboratory every week and split with a chainsaw and the larvae or complete insects inside them were collected. Laboratory and field studies were conducted based on complete random design and the mean and standard deviation of the studied biological parameters were calculated based on common statistical methods.

The results showed that the emergence of adult insects started from the early days of the April and the peak of emergence was in the middle of the May, but then at the end of October due to the emergence of new generation insects, complete insects were observed in small numbers and ended in early November. The female began to oviposit in 9±2 days after emergence and the mean of oviposition period 8.1±1.57 days, the average number of deposited eggs by each female was 99.1±12.61, the average embryonic period 8.9±2.29, White elliptical eggs hatched 95.8±4.1 days after oviposition and the average longevity of male and female insects was 77.5±16.5 and 90.5±18.2, respectively. In laboratory conditions, at the beginning of April and a few days after releasing the whole insects into the rearing cages, their feeding activity started from the bark of the thin branches of alder and beech. The average length of the pre-ovulation period is 7±4.1 days, the average length of the egg-laying period is 10.75±1.47 days, the average number of eggs laid is 51.77±0.5, the average length of the embryonic period is 75.1±1.01 9 days and the average longevity of male and female insects was 107±11.7 and 100.5±12.77 respectively. The number of larval stages was four and the fourth instar larvae formed in the deep parts of the trunk pupal chamber and pupated. The pupae emerged to adults after 2 months in December. Adults stayed in the pupation cell over winter and left them in the next spring. Therefore, the life cycle completed in two years.

The study of pest breeding using alder wood and completing the life of the pest in the laboratory was done for the first time. Mating and egg-laying activities were rarely observed during the day. The lifespan of complete insects of this species is long, like other species of this genus and it makes the insect able to survive the winter and survive for more than one year. To complete and optimize the pest breeding in natural areas as well as sustainable forest protection, extensive and complementary studies in this field are needed in the future.

The forest is one of the terrestrial ecosystems. From the point of ecology science, the forest is a complete and complex ecosystem, the completeness of which requires the balance of many forces, quantitatively and qualitatively, in this balance, fungi are of the important sources in ecosystems affecting on the other organisms and are considered as a part of forest biodiversity. Therefore, knowing the ecological conditions of fungi is the first step for studies, that if the study complete, the research project and implementation plans will be more successful. So that, this study investigated the effect of physiographic factors on the distribution of polypores fungi in Neka forests of Mazandaran province.

The study area was selected by forest plan and expert opinion of forestry plan. After forest survey, the series were selected in altitude profile. Then, the forest was divided into three altitude classes by 1:25000 topographical map. The first class was 200-400 meters a.s.l., the second class was 400-800 meters and the third class was above 800 meters a.s.l. In each altitudinal class, 30 10R-plots were random-systematically collected. The distance between the plots on the transect in each class was considered at least 500 meters. Investigations were carried out on each sample and the samples were transferred to the laboratory. Fungi identification was done by checking the macroscopic and microscopic characteristics and also using the methods in scientific sources. Ecological information was recorded in the data collection forms. Two-way agreement tables and Kramer's statistic and also Spearman's correlation were used to investigate the relationship between ecological factors such as season, altitude, aspect and slope with the abundance of fungi. Analyzes were done by SPSS v.16 software.

  The results showed that among the 1057 polypore fungi, 39 polypores fungi were identified. These species were on 10 trees and shrub as host. The highest abundance was related to Trametes versicolor (about 22%). Polyporaceae with 13 genera and 20 species (50%) has the most abundance and Hapalopilaceae and Schizoporaceae with one genus and one species (3%) has the lowest abundance. The highest number of fungi was recorded in seasons autumn with 382 cases (36%), summer with 371 cases (35%) and spring with 304 cases (29%). The results showed that the number of fungi that was collected in the altitude of 400-800 meters with 38% abundance were more than the two other altitude ranges. In the general survey, the abundance of polypore fungi identified with directions in the study area was determined that the northern aspect had the highest abundance with 54%. Furthermore, fungi had the most abundant in slopes from 0 to 25% (with 56% abundance), 25 to 50% slopes (with 42% abundance) and in slopes above 50% (with 2% abundance), respectively.

Since any change in fungal community function can affect the health and production of the plant community, it is necessary to study the relationship between the abundance of fungi and physiographic factors in order to maintain the health, diversity, abundance and production of fungi.

Tree species can cause changes in soil characteristics and organic carbon storage due to their tolerance to harsh environmental conditions. Therefore, by knowing the species that have more ability to store carbon, it would be possible to follow the improvement and regeneration of urban forests from the perspective of carbon sequestration index. Haloxylon ammodendron and Tamarix hispida shrubs are among the important halophyte species of the Irano-Turanian vegetation zone. In these areas, it is important the role of these shrubs in storing carbon and increasing plant biodiversity. The current research aims to investigate the soil carbon sequestration and plant biodiversity indicators in the habitats of these two species in Qom province.

The natural habitat of Tamarix located in Mesila plain of Qom province and the cultivated habitat of Haloxylon in 1362, located in Hossein-Abad area of Mish-mast in Qom plain with arid climate. Soil sampling was done randomly on one hectare with 30 samples from the eastern direction under the canopy and outside the canopy, by a cylinder at the depth of 0-15 cm in both Haloxylon and Tamarix habitats separately. Sampling was done to calculate the soil organic carbon reserve to obtain the apparent specific mass and organic carbon and some soil physical and chemical factors. To study the vegetation coverage in each habitat, from a plot of 400 m2 with the method of implementing the plot in the form of four plots of 10 x 10 meters in order to better distribute it on the surface of one hectare, and to study the vegetation of the floor from 20 micro-plots of one m2 (five micro-plots in each plot) was used. The values of species diversity in each microplate from each sample plot was calculated using Simpson, Shannon-Wiener indices and species richness using Margalef, Menchick and uniform indices with Pillo and Sheldon indices. Spearman's test was used to calculate the correlation between soil carbon deposition factors and some physical and chemical factors.

The average of all measured factors in the soil was higher for Tamarix. The effect of species and sampling position and the mutual effect of species in sampling position on the amount of acidity factors, percentage of organic carbon, potassium and carbon deposition (organic carbon storage) of the soil had a significant difference at the level of 5%. Furthermore, based on the comparison of the average of the treatments, it was found that the highest amount of soil carbon deposition is in the treatment under canopy of the Tamarix shrub with the amount of 191.13 tons per hectare. The results showed a significant difference in the amount of soil carbon sequestration between two species of Haloxylon and Tamarix, and it is higher in Tamarix soil. Soil characteristics such as carbon deposition, %OC, pH and K under canopy of Tamarix are higher than outside the canopy. The correlation between carbon sequestration characteristics and other factors showed that OC, pH and EC factors can be used as the most important influencing factors to estimate soil carbon sequestration. The indicators of plant biodiversity, including species diversity, species richness and uniformity, were calculated for each micro-plot only in Haloxylon habitat, because the Tamarix habitat was lack of floor cover and reproduction due to severe drought stress. The Menhinik and Margalef indices with the values of 1.39 and 1.68, respectively, have assigned the average species richness of Haloxylon habitat.

Due to the positive effect of Tamarix on the increase of organic matter and soil carbon deposition, which improves the soil structure in the long term, as well as the ability to adapt and resist the dry and fragile weather conditions of Mesileh region. The revival of this valuable species is vital and it is a suitable species for forestry in areas with such characteristics. Likewise, considering the positive effect of Haloxylon species in increasing habitat biodiversity indicators, which in the long term protect the soil structure, the issue of preserving and revitalizing these valuable plants is necessary for Qom province.

The Moroccan locust (Dociostaurus maroccanus) presents a substantial threat to the rangelands of Golestan province, demanding immediate attention from responsible organizations. Although the scientific literature lacks a precise definition of infestation levels, the density of locusts per unit area remains the primary metric used to assess the severity of infestation. The destructive impact of Moroccan locust infestations on agriculture, livestock, and the environment emphasizes the urgent necessity for a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing the intensity and spatial distribution of locust outbreaks in Golestan province.

In response to this knowledge gap, a comprehensive study was conducted in 2020-2022 to assess the extent of Moroccan locust infestation in the northern rangelands of Golestan province. The study utilized a multifaceted approach, combining field sampling with in-depth interviews involving 200 experts and local individuals actively engaged in combating locusts over different years. This approach aimed to outline the infested areas, quantify the density of locusts per unit area, and assess the frequency of locust presence over varying timeframes. The field sampling involved systematic surveys of locust populations in various rangeland habitats, while the interviews provided valuable insights into the historical patterns of locust infestation and the effectiveness of control measures employed by local communities and authorities.

The collected data were used to construct a spectrograph illustrating the intensity of locust invasions, incorporating variables such as density, frequency, and spatial distribution of locust outbreaks across different infestation periods. The resulting spectrograph facilitated an in-depth analysis of the periodicity and geographical expansion of locust intensity throughout the province. The comprehensive nature of the study allowed for a holistic understanding of the complex interactions between environmental factors, locust population dynamics, and human interventions in shaping the patterns of locust infestation in Golestan province. Based on this spectrograph, five distinct frequency periods of locust infestation intensity were identified, and corresponding maps depicting infestation intensity for each period were generated for the studied areas. The spatially explicit maps provided valuable insights into the hotspots of locust activity and the temporal dynamics of infestation intensity, enabling a more targeted and proactive approach to locust control and management.

The study's findings emphasize the potential of analyzing these spectrographs to unravel the underlying causes of fluctuations in locust outbreak intensity over time and location. Such insights hold considerable promise for informing the management and control of locust populations. The integration of field data with expert knowledge and community perspectives has enriched our understanding of the multifaceted nature of locust infestation dynamics, providing a solid foundation for the development of evidence-based strategies to mitigate the impact of Moroccan locust outbreaks on the rangelands of Golestan province.

The varied benefits of the forest and its diverse management approaches give rise to conflicts among stakeholders. In this context, laws and regulations have been established over time to protect and sustain forest ecosystems. Conflicts in forest management are a natural phenomenon, making it crucial for forest-dependent communities to comprehend and appropriately resolve arising conflicts. The perception and awareness of local communities regarding the type and level of conflict with conservation forces play a pivotal role in sustainable forest management. In this regard, the present study aimed to examine the understanding and resolution of conflicts between local communities and forest conservation forces in the Zarrin-Gol watershed area of Golestan province, utilizing a quantitative and deductive approach.

In this study, 485 households from forest-dependent communities were selected in six watersheds of the Zarrin-Gol area in Golestan province. Approximately 190 households were chosen as the sample using systematic random sampling. A questionnaire served as a tool to measure the perception of local communities and the applied approaches to conflict management. The face validity of the questionnaire was confirmed through the opinions of natural resource experts, and its reliability was established by calculating the Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Following data collection through a survey, data analysis was conducted using SPSS-25 software with the Kruskal-Wallis and Spearman correlation tests.

The results indicate a significant difference in the perception of local communities regarding conflicts with forest protection forces at a 99% confidence level. Their contextual understanding, with an average of 2.09, was higher than their innate response to conflicts. Cooperative strategies and compromise were predominantly employed by local communities in managing conflicts with forest conservation forces, as opposed to avoidance and competition strategies. Additionally, individuals with a better understanding of conflict tended to use cooperation and avoidance more in conflict resolution. Conversely, those with a lesser understanding of conflict tended to rely on stress and confrontation strategies in managing conflicts.

In general, the local communities' comprehension of the nature and extent of disputes can significantly impact the utilization of comprehensive conflict management methods. Implementing facilitative activities to broaden the scope of communication and social interactions, strengthening social capital, increasing knowledge and awareness of the rural environment (including the explanation of ownership systems and responsibilities), and establishing alternative livelihoods in rural areas to reduce the dependency of local communities on forest products are among the most crucial recommendations for mitigating conflicts in the study area.

Mountain ecosystems play an important role in ecosystem stability, especially for biodiversity protection and sustainable development and ecological security. This research was conducted with the aim of the investigating the composition and diversity of plants and the process of their changes in the elevation profile of Alvares to Sabalan (2300 to 4811 meters above sea level) with different elevation classes in the southeast slope, to protect gene reserves and management rangelands in this region.

After field investigations and according to the possibility of access to rangeland in the area, nine elevation classes (sites) were determined, three 100-meter transects were established in each site, and 10 one m2 plots were established along each transect with a distance of 10 meters from each other. Plant species were collected from the surface of the plots and then identified in the herbarium. In each plot, the percentage of vegetation cover and the density of species were recorded. The highest elevation that led to the collection of plant samples was Sabalan 4480 meters. Shannon, Simpson, Margalef and Menhinich indices were used to check the diversity and richness of plant species. Using the information related to measuring the percentage of canopy cover and the number of observed species, the indices of diversity, richness and evenness of species were calculated for the selected sites. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to investigate the differences between the sites in different elevation classes, and Duncan's test was used to compare the means. Various indices are used to determine species diversity, among which two indices, Simpson and Shannon-Wiener, were used. Species richness was also determined using Margalef and Menhinick indices and analyses related to vegetation ranking including Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) were performed.

The results showed that the Asteraceae family with 31 species, Astragalus with 10 genera are the most prominent elements of the region's flora. According to the results of this research, 33% of the identified species were related to Iran-Turonian region. The forms of Hemicryptophytes with (54%), Therophytes with (22%) were the most abundant biological forms in the region. The highest amount of diversity, richness and evenness was observed in the elevation class of 2200-3200 meters. The results showed that elevation, precipitation, temperature, soil sand content, slope and phosphorus were effective factors on the distribution of species. The greater compatibility of plants with the environmental conditions of the region has caused hemicryptophytes to form the dominant biological type of the region, the justification for the high presence of Therophytes is also the result of human interference and concentrated livestock grazing, road construction and recreational areas.

In examining the effect of elevation on the composition and diversity of plants, it can be concluded that the elevation affects the composition and diversity of plants, it seems that the condition of the composition and diversity of species in the southeast rangelands of Sabalan, based on the indicators of diversity and evenness, the rangelands have medium diversity conditions and are increasing is low indicating the intensity of destruction in the entire investigated areas, probably the cause of destruction at lower elevation, the impact of livestock grazing, as well as the effects of tourism activities and Alvares ski resort, and the causes of destruction at elevation above 3600 meters, the trampling of plants by mountain climbers and in the result is the loss of plant species. In general, the main reason for the low diversity in high elevation seems to be the decrease in temperature and the harsh conditions for the growth of plants.

Oak is a common and the most important species in Zagros forests of Iran. Zagros forests play a crucial and effective role in water supply, soil conservation and climate modification. Unfortunately, a significant part of those forests suffer from oak decline. Zagros forest covers almost 40% of Iran’s woodland which especially during the last two decades the population of oak trees (Quercus spp.) decreased mainly due to drought, diseases and insect pests. One of the most important pests in western oak forests is green oak leaf roller, Tortrix viridana L., (Lep.: Tortricidae) feed on oak leaves as the main host.  

This research aimed to assess and predict the degree of damage to the oak forests using remote sensing and GIS methods through regression analysis of the oak foliage remaining ratios of field plots with a vegetation indices of Sentinel-2 data during a year. Field monitoring carried on from April- 27-2020 to May-14-2020. For this purpose, in a two-kilometer-wide vector along the route from Sarovabad city to Bashmaq border, 100 sampling locations were randomly determined using GIS software. In each sampling location, four trees were selected in the four main geographical directions (in order to reduce the effect of directions on distribution of T. viridana population). Then, four branches (length about 100 cm) were randomly cut as a sampling unit, and the number of fifth instar larvae of T. viridana, were counted. The correlation between the number of T. viridana and elevation, slope, distance from the road, distance from the river, distance from residential areas, NDVI and solar radiation index were analyzed using Pearson's correlation test and multiple linear regression. Data normality was checked using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistical test. Data were analyzed using SPSS software (Version 26).

The results of Pearson's correlation analysis between the those variables and T. viridana population show the highest and lowest correlation of the T. viridana population with elevation (r= 0.651) and slope (r= -0.015), respectively. According to multiple linear regression, elevation had the highest correlation coefficient with T. viridana population density. In addition, solar radiation index, NDVI and distance from the river were ranked with strong to weak correlation, respectively. Results showed that, the relationship between slope and vegetation density is also significant (P= 0.032; r= 0.214). According to the distribution intensity map of the T. viridana, which was obtained using the multiple linear regression equation, it has been shown that the most distribution of the T. viridana was observed in the southwest of Sarovabad city. Clearly NDVI was convenient for separating different levels of damage.

It can be concluded that the population of T. viridana is obviously high at high altitude and in high tree densities. The results showed that the population density of T. viridana is higher wherever a dense vegetation was occurred. This research provided a feasible and quantitative method in the spatiotemporal prediction of green leaf roller occurrence by remote sensing and GIS. In conclusion, with the availability of population models, it is possible to limit the spread of T. viridana through earlier detection of pest incidence.

 Beech trees (Oriental beech: Fagus orientalis Lipsky.), native to Hyrcanian forests of Iran, are considered as one of the most valuable forest tree species in the north of the Iran. Biscogniauxia nummularia (Bull.) Kuntze is an endophytic fungus which acts as a pathogenic fungus under favorable conditions and causes strip-cankers (commonly known as charcoal canker) in Fagus species. The disease occurs in tree hosts affected by stress. High temperatures and summer droughts are favorable conditions for causing and distributing this disease in the forest.

During the field surveys across the beech forests of Sangdeh region in Mazandaran province, beech trees with severe symptoms of charcoal canker were observed. The most visible symptoms of the disease in the form of round spots to black stripes on the trunk and branches, as well as dieback of the beech tree branches in the area. Several samples were collected from infected parts of oriental beech trees and transferred to the plant pathology laboratory. Microscopic slides of the fungal stroma were prepared from infected tree bark and subjected to microscopic observation based on valid identification keys. Furthermore, the samples were cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) culture medium and the pathogenic agent was identified after purification by hyphal tip and single spore techniques, using microscopic examination and morphological characteristics.

Results showed that Biscogniauxia nummularia is the agent of disease, which causes severe damage to beech trees and has already been identified as cause of beech charcoal canker in many European countries. This fungal species has some special morphological characteristics, including applanate stroma, ostioles are slightly papillate to nearly at the same level as the stromatal surface, ascus apical apparatus blue in iodine and Melzer's reagents, so it is separated from other species. This is the first report of identification of B. nummularia as the causal agent of beech canker disease from Iran. This fungus spends most of its life cycle as an endophyte, and under unfavorable environmental conditions, especially drought stress. B. nummularia takes advantage to alter host physiology, invading host tissue and causing black bark cankers on trunk and branches, known as strip cankers, and wood decay in mature trees.  

The direct relationship between the consequences of climate change, especially water and temperature stress in the host and the development of forest pathogens in the case of several important and key pathogenic fungi, including B. nummularia, has been reported by various researchers in the world, and it has been determined that environmental stress plays an important role in the development of this disease on beech trees in different parts of the world. Meanwhile, as one of the requirements of disease management, it is important to identify the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of the populations of this fungus in Iran and to identify the distribution and frequency of the disease, which can be very useful in choosing its management strategies. On the other hand, due to the prediction of progressive adverse climate changes in the future, which are an important factor in the development of the disease, continuous monitoring of current changes in beech natural habitats should be included in forest ecosystem monitoring programs to predict future changes, possible ecosystem consequences, and as a vital part of sustainable forest management.

Long-horned beetles (Col.: Cerambycidae) cause irreparable damage to trees and wood industries. In this regard, attention to the forest and wood entomology for management in the protection of forests and wood industries should grow and develop. This study was conducted to identify the family of long-horned beetles (Col.: Cerambycidae) in Astara city, so that the results are used by researchers and executive bodies of the country.

Astara city, situated in the northernmost part of Guilan province, is positioned at Longitude: 48° 52', Latitude: 38° 25', and an elevation of approximately -24 meters from sea level. The climate in this region is characterized as mild and humid, with an average annual rainfall of 1500 mm and relative humidity ranging between 75 and 85 percent. Sampling during the spring and summer of 2019-2021 employed common methods such as sweeping nets, light traps, and direct collection by hand from the trunks of infected trees. Sampling covered various areas, including forest trees, fruit trees, parks, green spaces, rangeland plants and trees, as well as warehouses storing dry and industrial woods, especially timbers imported from Central Asian countries at the customs office of Astara city. Collected samples, placed in closed containers containing the lethal substance ethyl acetate (CH3CH2OC(O)CH3), were transferred to the laboratory. Following pinning and spreading of the samples, characteristics such as the host plant species, collection area, method, collector, and date were documented under each sample. Identification and determination of scientific names utilized various references and identification keys. The collected specimens are housed in the entomology collection of Islamic Azad University, Astara branch.

A survey conducted between 2019-2021 in Astara city identified long-horned beetles (Col.: Cerambycidae), resulting in the collection of samples representing 10 species across 4 subfamilies. In the Prioninae (Latereille, 1804) subfamily, Aegosoma scabricorne (Scopoli, 1763) was collected in Khaneasiab area. Four species were obtained from the Lamiinae (Latreille, 1825) subfamily: Morimus verecundus (Faldermann, 1836) from Sayadlar area, Khaneasiab, around Steel Lake, and Complex No. 2 of Islamic Azad University; Dorcadion talyschense (Ganglbauer, 1884) from Heiran region (distributed in Talesh mountain range); Oberea oculata (Linnaeus, 1758) from Heiran region; and Monochamus galloprovincialis (Olivier, 1795) from timbers imported from Central Asian countries in the customs office of Astara city. Four species were collected from the Cerambycinae (Latereille, 1802) subfamily: Osphranteria coerulescens (Redtenbacher, 1850) with distribution in most areas of Astara city; Cerambyx cerdo (Linnaeus, 1758) from Bibiyanlu Forest Park, Complex No. 2 of Islamic Azad University, Darband Village, and Heiran region; Aromia moschata (Linnaeus, 1758) from around Steel Lake; and Stromatium fulvum (Villers, 1997) in most sampling areas, particularly in decaying industrial and construction wood. From the Parandrinae (Blanchard, 1845) subfamily, only one species, Parandra caspica (Villiers, 1967), was collected from around Steel Lake.

In this survey, 10 species from 4 subfamilies of long-horned beetles (Col.: Cerambycidae) were collected in Astara city. All species had been previously reported by other researchers. Morimus verecundus (Faldermann, 1836), Osphranteria coerulescens (Redtenbacher, 1850), Cerambyx cerdo (Linnaeus, 1758), Monochamus galloprovincialis (Olivier, 1795), and Stromatium fulvum (Villers, 1997) were distributed in most areas of Astara city. Monochamus galloprovincialis was predominantly collected from softwoods imported from Central Asian countries, while S. fulvum was collected from dry wood and other wood industries.

Failure to pay attention to the protection of water resources, soil and plant resources has caused the destruction of these resources. Among the effective factors in this destruction, we can point out land use conversion without a comprehensive approach, cutting down forests, destroying rangeland, drought, damage by pests and diseases. Pests and plant diseases in the forests and rangelands of the country are considered one of the most important factors of forest destruction. For the prevention and management of the outbreak of pests and plant diseases, there is a need for monitoring and a comprehensive management plan for pests and plant diseases. As the largest province in the country, Kerman province is part of the Turani, Iran zone, and out of the total area of 181737 square kilometers of this province, about 5% of agricultural land, 45% of rangeland, 13% of forest and 37% of desert.

To evaluate and monitor the status of the most important pests and pathogens of the main plants and considering the diversity of environmental conditions and the area of forests and natural rangeland in Kerman province, sampling was carried out during the years 2018 to 2020. The monitoring plan was implemented in Dehno, Babzangi, Kohpanj and Glochar stations as well as Yazdanabad and Raviz areas as two mountain almond tree habitats. The most important forest communities (trees-shrubs) and rangeland in the mentioned areas are Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb. , Amygdalus scoparia Spach. , Amygdalus elaeagnifolia Spach., Artemisia aucheri Boiss's, Artemisia siberi Besser, Stipa arabica Trin. & Rupr and Zygophyllum atriplicoides Fisch. & C. A. Mey. Periodic sampling of pests and pathogens was done in those plants in the desired parts. In sampling, the type and level of contamination with pests and pathogens were recorded. Due to the thinness of the almond forests in the investigated areas in Kerman province, the transect sampling method was used in the form of continuous lines. Data collection from rangeland areas was done during field visits of representative plant types. Sampling in this range was based on systematic random method.  

Based on the investigations carried out at the Dehno Bardsir station as the habitat of Z. atriplicoides, the seed-eating moth from the Lepidoptera order, at the Dehno Bardsir and kohpanj Bardsir stations as the habitat of S. arabica, the Tranzscheliella iranica S. and Dehno Bardsir and Kohpanj Bardsir stations as habitats of A. aucheri and A. siberi, Gallfly from the family of Cecidomyiidae was isolated and identified with about 4% contamination, also from Yazdanabad Zarand region as a habitat of A. scoparia, wood-borer beetle capnodis tenebrionis with about 30% contamination and from Raviz area of Rafsanjan as a habitat of A. elaeagnifolia, mistletoe Loranthus grewinkii Boiss. & Buhse was detected with about 60% contamination. The population fluctuations of the pests of seed-eating moth, gallfly and wood-borer beetle in mountain almonds and the the stipa smut pathogen in the years of monitoring of damaging agents in the studied areas was almost constant and no particular fluctuation was observed in these agents population. However, the population of mistletoe as a semi-parasitic plant based on A. elaeagnifolia decreased in the studied area in 2019 and again in 2020, it was returned to the level of the previous years. The reason for the decrease in the population of L. grewinkii in 2019 was the pruning of the infested tree branches to the mistletoe plant.

Due to the unprincipled pruning, this semi-parasitic plant grew again from the previous contaminated places and reached the previous population level in the following year, according to the results of the seed-eating moth pests. The dormant Gallfly, and the stipa smut have a low population, and based on their population fluctuations in the studied years, they were in equilibrium with the host plants in their natural environment and do not have an overflowing state. Based on the results, the populations of C. tenebrionis and L. grewinkii are high in the host plants, causing severe damage and reducing the growth and reproduction of the host. It is necessary to continue detection pests and diseases in different regions in order to monitor the existing factors and the newfound factors to prevent their entry and spread.