abolfazl shahabadi

Iranian ports, especially those located at south, are primary centers of trade between Iran and the world. In recent years, these ports have played an increasingly critical role in national economy. The aim of this research is presentation a framework to investigate the drivers affecting selection of the best bulk terminal as the destination of Iranian and also determination of the importance of these factors to prioritize bulk terminals. The present study develops a multi-criteria decision-making model for identification and prioritization of factors affecting selection of a port as destination port by importers of bulk cargoes. Attitude of this research is quantitative and purpose of this research is applied and in terms of method is descriptive-survey. The methodology of present survey included two steps. First, presentation a framework for identifying and ranking the drivers of gaining the competitive advantage in bulk ports for importing bulk products. Second, drivers affecting selection of port and their rating were identified and ranking of studied ports were done. For first step, background of the research and opinion of the experts and DEMATEL method and hierarchical analysis was used for second step. Among the bulk importers 20 experts were selected using purposive sampling method to answer the questions. Considering experts’ comments and their processing through DEMATEL techniques, one could suggest that the f drivers of unloading rate, entry of port, and skilled labor force were the most significant drivers to gain competitive advantage in bulk ports. This is while customs formalities were suggested to be the least significant driver from their viewpoint. According to the results of the research, structural, context and content drivers are the appropriate framework for assessing the identification and ranking the drivers to gain competitive advantage in bulk ports for importing bulk products in Iran.

In recent decades, globalization has emerged as a major force shaping the structure of financial systems in developing economies. However, an important question remains as to whether the effect of globalization on financial development is uniform across different levels of globalization or exhibits a nonlinear, threshold-dependent pattern. This study aims to address this issue by examining the nonlinear effects of globalization on financial development in 53 selected member countries of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) over the period 2004–2022, using a Panel Smooth Transition Regression (PSTR) model with a single transition function (m = 1). In this framework, the KOF composite globalization index is employed as the transition variable, while financial development is proxied by the ratio of private sector credit to GDP. The estimation results provide strong evidence of a statistically significant nonlinear relationship characterized by a two-regime structure. Specifically, globalization exerts a positive and significant effect on financial development in the first regime, when the level of globalization is below the estimated threshold of 82.5. Beyond this threshold, the effect of globalization becomes negative and significant, indicating an inverted U-shaped relationship between globalization and financial development. The estimated transition slope parameter (γ = 0.43) suggests a relatively rapid shift between regimes. Furthermore, inflation and government size negatively affect financial development in both regimes, whereas democracy and GDP per capita have a positive and significant impact only in the low-globalization regime. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of gradual globalization strategies, macroeconomic stability, and institutional strengthening as essential prerequisites for fostering sustainable financial deepening across OIC member countries.

Food security is a fundamental need for the growth and development of any country, which has a comprehensive concept and is determined by the coordination of economic, social, political, biological, global, and other factors. Therefore, it is very important to identify the factors affecting the food security of countries. The current research has investigated the role of globalization and democracy on the food security of 20 leading developing countries in the production of science from 2008 to 2021. To analyze the results, the dynamic panel model estimated by the method of generalized moments has been used. The FAO food security index is considered a food security variable, and the effect of economic, social, and political globalization variables, democracy, economic quality, inflation rate, and the amount of interruption of the food security variable have been investigated. The results of the research show that the variables of democracy, economic quality, and quantity with interruption of food security have a positive and significant effect on food security. Economic and political globalization has a negative and significant impact on the food security index, and the political globalization variable has had the greatest impact. On the other hand, the effect of social globalization on the food security of the studied countries has not been significant. It is recommended that politicians and decision-makers, in addition to controlling inflation and improving economic quality, improve democracy, and provide the conditions for a large increase in social relations in national and transnational borders.

Inequality is one of the most important issues in economic development. Evidence shows that inequality has a direct impact on growth (due to reduced domestic demand), wealth concentration, individuals' economic opportunities, social cohesion, welfare, and crime (due to feelings of social injustice). Therefore, excessive inequality is detrimental to economic development and can also affect the effectiveness of economic development aid. Inequality can exist between individuals, groups, or nations. One type of inequality concerns gender. Gender inequality is an economic and vital issue. For the global economy to flourish, an equal playing field for women and men must be established. The aim of this study is to examine the impact of globalization and institutional quality on gender inequality, with emphasis on the role of political equality and human capital, during the period 2008-2020. This study employs the two-step Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) and panel data from selected countries. The results indicate that the effect of globalization on gender inequality is positive and significant, while the effects of institutional quality, political equality, and human capital on gender inequality are negative and significant. The findings highlight the importance of improving institutional quality and enhancing political equality and human capital in reducing gender inequality and strengthening economic development.

Employment, as one of the basic foundations of economic and social development, plays a key role in improving the standard of living, reducing poverty, and enhancing social and political stability. However, in recent years, rapid technological development and structural changes in the global economy have created barriers to creating sustainable employment. These developments underlined the need to examine more closely the factors affecting employment. This study, which uses a knowledge-based approach, examines the impact of the knowledge components on employment in selected developed and developing countries over the period 2011-2022. The results of the study show that the role of knowledge, particularly in innovation, technology transfer, and improving labour productivity, is of major importance in boosting employment. Country-by-country comparisons highlight the importance of targeted policy making and investment in knowledge-based areas. The findings show that the estimated coefficient of the variables of domestic R&D accumulation, physical capital, and economic freedom in selected developed and developing countries was positive and significant, but that the estimated coefficient of the variable of external R&D spillover had a positive and negligible impact on employment in the countries studied.

Today, many countries in the world have realized the importance of entrepreneurship and its determinants in achieving economic growth and development. Among the determining factors of entrepreneurship, it is essential to pay attention to the factor of the urbanization due to the significant growth of urbanization, especially in developing countries. Therefore, the present research, using the experimental data of two groups of selected developing and developed countries during the period of 2015-2019, investigates the effect of the degree of urbanization and the population's age structure on entrepreneurship with the help of panel data approach and using the method. The generalized moments are estimated. The results show that the degree of urbanization and the population's age structure has a positive and significant effect on entrepreneurship in both groups of selected countries. However, their estimated coefficient is larger in developed countries.

Sustainable economic growth requires effective investment in physical capital, but the difference in performance between countries in this regard is due to the level of knowledge development and their economic institutions. However, a precise understanding of how knowledge and institutional components interact in the process of physical capital accumulation, especially in developing countries with diverse economic structures and specific institutional challenges, is a research gap. Identifying these relationships is essential for formulating effective policies to improve countries' physical capital accumulation. The purpose of the present study is to examine the impact of knowledge components, including domestic R&D accumulation, foreign R&D spillovers, human capital, and economic freedom, on physical capital accumulation in selected developing countries. The present study covers the period 2011-2022 using panel data and ordinary least squares estimation method. The results show that domestic R&D accumulation, foreign R&D spillovers, and human capital have a positive and significant effect on physical capital accumulation, while the effect of some components of economic freedom is only significant at certain levels of institutional development. The findings emphasize the importance of a knowledge-based approach in policymaking for the development of physical capital.

Total factor productivity (TFP) is a pivotal determinant of sustained economic growth, serving as a measure of how efficiently inputs are transformed into output. Elevating TFP is not just a technical goal but a strategic necessity for nations aiming to achieve enduring prosperity and bolster their global competitiveness. This study analyzes the influence of key factors—including domestic R&D accumulation, R&D spillovers via imports, human capital, property rights, and economic freedom—on TFP in selected developing countries between 2011 to 2022. The findings indicate that while domestic R&D accumulation alone yields a positive but statistically insignificant effect on TFP, other variables such as R&D spillovers, property rights, and economic freedom have significant and positive impacts. Importantly, the interplay between strong property rights and domestic R&D acts as a potent driver of productivity gains. These insights suggest that policymakers should not only support innovation and research efforts but also cultivate institutional environments that protect property rights and promote economic liberalization. Such a holistic approach is essential for maximizing productivity, fostering sustainable development, and enhancing a nation’s position on the world stage. By understanding and leveraging these mechanisms, developing countries can unlock greater economic potential and chart a path toward long-term growth.

Increasing the resilience of the economy to internal and external shocks and the ability to recover after their occurrence in today's competitive and challenging world has become one of the policy priorities in different countries to achieve continuous and stable economic growth and development. On the other hand, paving the way for the emergence of creative human ideas and developing an entrepreneurial environment by increasing employment, increasing production and increasing the vitality of society, the ability of the economy to absorb temporary or permanent risks and adapt to rapidly changing conditions. Therefore, the present study by using panel data and generalized method of moments examines the effect of necessity-oriented and opportunistic entrepreneurship on economic resilience in two groups of developing and developed selected countries during the period 2014-2022. The results show that necessity-oriented entrepreneurship had a positive and significant effect on the economic resilience of selected before innovation-driven developing countries and had no significant effect on the economic resilience of innovation-driven developed countries. However, opportunistic entrepreneurship has had a positive and significant effect on the economic resilience of both groups of selected countries, although its estimated coefficient is higher for before innovation-driven developing countries. Other results show that institutions, infrastructure and innovation had a positive and significant effect on the economic resilience of both groups of selected countries.

The misery index, which is the sum of the inflation rate and the unemployment rate, is one of the key indicators for measuring economic pressures on households and assessing the effectiveness of countries' economic policies. In recent years, many developing countries have faced the phenomenon of economic fragility; a situation that can lead to increased livelihood vulnerability and social dissatisfaction. The present study aimed to analyze the impact of economic fragility dimensions on the misery index in selected countries with a fragility alert status during the period 2007-2022. Using panel data and the generalized moments method (GMM), this study examined the effects of the variables of economic recession and poverty, unbalanced development, migration and brain drain, and population pressure on the misery index. The results showed that all components of economic fragility have a positive and significant effect on the misery index, and population pressure also plays a reinforcing role in increasing this index. The findings indicate that economic fragility weakens the level of economic well- being and exacerbates the misery index through increased inflation and unemployment. Therefore, reducing the dimensions of fragility by strengthening sustainable, balanced growth and preventing elite migration, along with population management, is an inevitable necessity to improve the misery index and improve the quality of life of households.

It is common to investigate Mashruteh’s era via the books and papers of those known as “intellectuals”. However, there are other booklets whose authors can be categorized as intellectual. The importance of these booklets is that their authors are not influenced by the new ideas which were pervasive in Europe and they are simply the description of the society in that period. Hence, they are good sources to obtain firsthand information about the different aspects of Iran’s society in the Qajar era. In this paper three booklets, the “Qazvini booklet”, “Majdiyeh booklet”, and “Suggested booklet of a Diwani”, from the economic point of view are investigated. Our study shows that from the first two booklets the lack of bread, the chaotic situation of the military members, and the senselessness of the property rights were important issues and the third booklet emphasized the military problem too. But another important issue that is described in the “Suggested booklet of a Diwani” is the story of the unsuccessful attempt of the government to establish factories that are not compatible with the resources of Iran. Based on the discussion of the author, this problem arises because Iran did not have a comparative advantage in producing those products. Generally, the results show that the economic problems that were discussed in those booklets had a unique root, the senselessness of property rights.

With the world entering a new phase of development, resource-based economies are giving way to knowledge- and technology-based economies. In this context, leveraging the benefits of trade partners’ investments in research and development and the production of new technologies is one of the key ways to achieve a knowledge- and technology-based economy, which can enhance total factor productivity and promote national innovation. Accordingly, the present study employs a panel data approach, using both the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) and the Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squares (FMOLS) methods, to examine the interactive effect of governance institutions and technological readiness—including ICT development, human capital skills, domestic R&D activities, industrial activities, and facilitation of access to financial resources—on technology spillovers through imports in selected samples of developing and developed science-producing countries during the period 2000–2022. The estimation results indicate that governance institutions and technological readiness indicators individually have positive and significant effects on technology spillovers in both groups of countries, with differing estimated coefficients in the short and long run. Furthermore, the interaction between governance and each of the technological readiness indicators also has a positive and significant effect on technology spillovers in both groups. Notably, the estimated coefficients of these interaction effects are larger than the coefficients of their individual effects.

The environment has been one of the main and most important concerns and concerns of human societies and obstacles to the sustainable development of countries in the past few decades. Therefore, in recent years, more attention has been paid to the quality and sustainability of the environment. The aim of the present study is to investigate the interactive effect of technological spillover with institutional quality on the environmental quality of selected developed and developing countries using the PSTR regression model during the period 2008-2022. Based on the results of the estimation, the interactive effect of technological spillover with institutional quality on the environmental quality of selected developed and developing countries is symmetric; for selected developed countries, in the high and low regimes of institutional interaction and technology spillover from imports, the ratio of domestic research and development expenditure to GDP, GDP per capita excluding natural resource rents and human capital have a positive and significant effect on environmental performance. For selected developing countries, in the high and low regimes, the interaction of institutions and technological spillovers from imports and gross production free of natural resource rents have a positive and significant effect. In the low regime, human capital has a positive but insignificant effect, but in the high regime, capital has a positive and significant effect on the environmental performance of developing countries, which indicates a different effect resulting from different amounts of natural resource rents in developing countries. Therefore, it is recommended that more emphasis be placed on establishing and strengthening local and state institutions that are responsible for environmental monitoring and management

the present study, using a panel data approach and the generalized moments method, has examined the mutual impact of financial development and economic freedom indicators on total factor productivity in two groups of selected developed and developing science-producing countries during the period 2000-2021. Based on the estimated results, the impact of financial market depth, financial market efficiency, and access to financial markets on total factor productivity in selected developing and developed science-producing countries is positive and significant with different estimated coefficients. Of course, the estimated coefficients obtained for the selected developing countries are larger than those for the selected developed science-producing countries. Also, the interaction effect of economic freedom and the three financial development indicators on total factor productivity in both groups of selected science-producing countries is positive and significant. Of course, their interaction coefficients are larger than their individual effect coefficients. In addition, the effect of domestic research and development indicators and human capital as control variables on total factor productivity in both groups of selected science-producing countries is positive and significant with different statistical coefficients.

In recent decades, many countries have gained considerable wealth by exploiting natural resources. However, this wealth has not always led to sustainable development, and in many cases, dependence on natural resources has reduced economic diversity and even led to undeveloped traps. This phenomenon, known as the curse of resources, raises important questions about how natural resources are exploited and its effects on the economic structure of countries. The aim of the present study is to examine the interaction of economic complexity and economic freedom on the rents of natural resources of selected countries producing science during the period 2000-2021, with the panel data approach. Based on the results, the dimensions of economic complexity (including technological, research and commercial complexity), economic freedom and the interaction of economic complexity with economic freedom have a negative and meaningful impact on the rents of natural resources in selected countries. Also, the developing countries have not performed well compared to the developed countries in terms of technological, research and commercial complexity and require the concentration and expansion of these sectors; in the field of economic freedom, the developing countries have a poor performance compared to the developed countries.

The environment is the place of life and the main provider of human needs, which is increasing in importance every day. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the impact of the governance institution and globalization on the environmental performance of selected developing countries using the PSTR regression model during the period of 2008-2022. The results of the estimations showed that there is a asymmetrically relationship between the variables of good governance and globalization with the environmental performance of the selected countries is developing; Because in the low regime (recession), only the effectiveness and Law quality index and globalization have a positive and significant effect on the environmental performance. While in both high (boom) and low (recession) regimes, the rule of law and corruption control index has a positive and significant effect on environmental performance. Also, the different values ​​of the natural resource rent as a threshold in the high (boom) and low (recession) regimes are different on the type of effect of the explanatory variables on the environmental performance.

In the past, the role of physical capital in the production process and subsequent economic development was much more important than other factors of production, and at that time, theories were put forward that stated that inequality through the accumulation of physical capital could accelerate the process of economic development. In the present era, knowledge is known as a source of wealth for societies, and the role of new factors of production is very important in the production function, and on the other hand, the centrality of new factors of production is human. Therefore, studying the determinants of income inequality is essential. The present study, using the GMM proposed by Blondel and Bond, examined the interaction effect of globalization and natural resource rents on income inequality in a group of selected countries during 2008-2020.The results of the study indicate that the mutual impact of globalization and natural resource rents on income inequality was positive and significant. It is suggested that by adopting a strategy of transforming natural resources into sustainable and productive capital, while strengthening the economic structure for an effective presence in the global economy by creating a stable income stream, it is possible to finance support policies. Also, according to the results, the impact of gender inequality on income inequality was positive and significant. The impact of democracy on income inequality was negative and significant, and the impact of institutions on income inequality was negative and meaningless.

This research, using the method of generalized moments, investigates the effect of venture capital (the Financial facilitation pillar related to the Digital Multi-sided Platform sub-index of the digital entrepreneurship ecosystems index) and the Business dynamism(the first pillar of the innovation ecosystem of The Global Competitiveness index) on the export of equipment medicine in selected countries during the period of 2015-2022. Based on the estimation results, venture capital and the business dynamics individually and interactively have a positive and significant effect on the export of medical equipment in both groups of selected countries. However, their interactive effect is greater than their effect. The variables of human capital, real exchange rate, and openness economy also have a positive and significant effect on the export of medical equipment. Considering results, on the one hand, by increasing education and skill-building, strengthening scientific and making more use of the mental and intellectual abilities of human resources at one's disposal in order to achieve more innovation and create an advantage drive competition; thereby improve their export performance, and on the other hand, by attracting and increasing risk-taking and bold investors, fill the gap of access to the required financial resources (due to the high risk of these activities, there is usually little desire to enter this business) and the chance of production units in attracting capital in the traditional way for the commercialization of ideas is very low) and thus provided the possibility of production and export with lower cost and greater competitiveness.

The relationship between the exchange rate, stock price, housing, and coin as the items considered by the investor for portfolio management has always been a complex discussion, and the relationship between them and determining the cause of the transfer of volatilities (receiver and transmitter of volatilities) may be different in each country and different periods. According to this, in the current study, the risk spillover between currency, housing, coin, and stock markets in the period of 1385:01- 1400:12 monthly using the vector autoregressive model with time-varying parameters of Diebold-Yilmaz (DY-TVP-VAR) have been investigated. The results show that currency and gold coins are the main drivers of transferring and receiving volatilities in the investigated network. The housing market has only received the risk and volatilities of other assets, and the most volatilities have been transferred from currency and stocks to housing. Also, the stock market has received the most volatilities from currency and then coins. Based on the results, housing can provide risk hedging for the investment portfolio, and in other words, it is a safe haven, but coins relationship with other assets has been different over time; its selection should be based on other assets in the portfolio as well as political and economic conditions, and it is not a safe haven under all conditions. Therefore, during the sanctions period and in conditions where the return on assets has a significant difference from the mean, using the DY-TVP-VAR model can bring better results for investors to manage their investment portfolios.

The virtual space and the increasing use of it by people in their daily life has been the beginning of the production of a trading unit called digital currency. Economic freedom is the ability of individuals to make their own economic decisions without interference/restrictions of the government or anti-market decisions of the government in favor of certain groups. However, it is not a definition referring to the removal of the government from legislation, planning and implementation of macroeconomic policies; Because supervision and control of the market, activities and policies of trade (domestic and foreign) is the inherent duty of governments. Economic freedom emphasizes the importance of the development and presence of the private sector, banks and private financial institutions, competitive market, import management and support of domestic industries. In this research, using panel data during the period from 2015 to 2021, the effect of digital currency and economic freedom on the export of goods in selected science-producing countries has been investigated by the method of generalized moments. The results show the positive and significant effect of digital currency, rate Conventional currency is innovation, economic freedom over the export of goods.

Economic growth is a crucial indicator of a country's development and plays a significant role in its integration into global economic exchanges and its bargaining power in international trade. This study investigates the effect of sustainable competitiveness convergence on per capita income convergence among the top 50 science-producing countries between 2014 and 2023, using the ordinary least squares (OLS) method. The findings reveal a positive and significant relationship between the convergence of natural capital, intellectual capital, resource efficiency, and social capital, and the convergence of per capita income. Governments have a dual responsibility: they must direct resources toward wealth generation while also converting non-renewable natural resources into renewable ones to achieve sustainable growth and development. Additionally, by fostering and motivating human capital, governments can enhance innovation and close the technology gap with leading countries in sustainable competitiveness. Two estimation cases were analyzed. The first case examined the interactive effect of governance on natural capital, while the second focused on the interactive impact of governance on intellectual capital. In both instances, these interactive effects were found to have a positive and significant influence on per capita income convergence. Given the critical importance of economic growth and per capita income, policymakers are encouraged to create a conducive environment for attracting intellectual capital into production activities by developing new markets for production factors. Moreover, it is expected that leaders will enhance the competitiveness index, particularly in terms of social capital, and facilitate economic growth by improving people’s livelihood security and well-being, promoting accountability and responsibility, and striving for equal opportunities.

Considering the significant gap between the GDP of developing and developed countries, identifying the factors that cause this gap is of particular importance between the most important of these factors, the difference in the level of innovation introduced. Innovation and its improvement promises to improve economic growth, and efforts to identify factors affecting innovation are considered prerequisites for designing policies affecting economic growth, which include economic structure and institutional quality. Institutions influence physical investment, human capital, technology, and the organization of production by reinforcing the key incentives of economic agents. Therefore, institutional quality can also approved as a key factor and foundation for continuous and stable economic growth. Finally, the existence of appropriate institutional quality through the channel of laws and economic tools leads to the expansion of innovation and creativity in the production process. With this background, the present study investigates the interactive effect of innovation and institutional quality on production based on panel data and the generalized method of moments (GMM). The gross domestic product of selected science-producing countries was analyzed separately from developed and developing countries from 2011 to 2020. The results show that the interactive effect of innovation and institutional quality on the GDP of both groups of selected developed and selected developing countries is positive and significant, except the intensity of its upshot on the GDP is large in the selected developed countries. Also, the effects of other variables, including the accumulation of physical capital, labor and human capital, on GDP in both groups of selected countries, with differences in the intensity of the effect, are estimated to be positive and significant.

The misery index is an economic indicator that is obtained from the sum of the inflation rate and the unemployment rate, and its increase indicates a decrease in social welfare and the spread of poverty. The current research, using the panel data approach and the method of generalized moments (GMM), examines the impact of the institution and globalization on the misery index in two groups of countries with a per capita income above 25 thousand dollars and countries with a per capita income below 25 thousand dollars during the period of 2008-2020. The results show that the governance institutional index has a negative and significant effect on the misery index in both groups of selected countries. Based on this, a one percent improvement in the quality of governance leads to a reduction of the misery index by 0.26 percent in countries with high per capita income and 0.14 percent in countries with low per capita income. Also, the globalization index has a negative and significant effect on the misery index in both groups of selected countries, which means that a one percent increase in the globalization leads to a decrease in the misery index by 0.53% in countries with high per capita income and 0.29% in countries with low per capita income. Therefore, it is recommended to provide a suitable foundation for improving the quality of governance through the channel of improving the quality of laws and regulations, the rule of law, corruption control, and the efficiency and effectiveness of the government to take advantage of the globalization environment in order to achieve a low inflation rate and unemployment rate, so reducing the misery index.

The Effect of Efficiency of Economic Diplomacy Strategy on Total Factors Productivity in Selected Developed and Developing Countries in the Period of 2011-2020Abstract :The limitation of resources has made increasing the productivity of all factors of production become the most important strategy of countries to achieve continuous and stable economic growth . On the other hand, in recent years, economic diplomacy has become an important tool for the implementation of industrial policies, and this can help increase the efficiency and effectiveness of economic activities and increase the productivity of all factors . The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of the efficiency components of economic diplomacy ( facilitating foreign trade, attracting foreign capital and acquiring foreign technology, national brand and attracting foreign tourists) on the productivity of the total factors in two groups of selected developing and developed countries during the period of 2011 - 2020 . It is generalized by the method of moments, and the results showed that the components of facilitating foreign trade, attracting foreign capital and obtaining foreign technology in both groups of selected countries with different estimated coefficients have a positive effect on the productivity of the total factors . It has meaning. However, the influence of national brand components and foreign tourist attraction on the productivity of the total factors in both groups of selected countries, although positive, but lacks statistical significance  .

Entrepreneurship by understanding and identifying business opportunities, creating employment, increasing national production and rising social welfare is as one of the ways to achieve development. Entrepreneurship based on motivation has divide into two categories: necessity-oriented and opportunistic. Necessity-oriented entrepreneurs are entrepreneurs who forced to start a business. However, opportunistic entrepreneurs are entrepreneurs who have entered the field of entrepreneurship with the aim of job independence or increasing profits. Motivation-based entrepreneurship is divided into necessity and opportunism. On the other hand, in all developing and developed countries, part of the economic activities are carried out outside the formal structure and in the shadows, which can affect the formal sector, including entrepreneurship. The shadow economy is proposed as one of the structural features that exist more or less in all economies of the world, both developing and developed, and can affect the entrepreneurial process. Regarding the relationship between the shadow economy and necessity-oriented and opportunistic entrepreneurship, other theories are presented as follows: modernization theory (over time and with the extensive growth of the formal economy, the shadow economy vanished), theory Structuralism (it is the first theory that states how the shadow economy has positive effects on necessity oriented entrepreneurship) Neoliberal theory (opportunistic creators not out of necessity but to avoid costs and save time They go to informal work).

In this regard, the present study with the approach of panel data and generalized moment method to determine the effect of the shadow economy on the necessity-driven and opportunity-driven entrepreneurship in two groups of developing and developed selected countries(according to the availability of their data) during the period 2009-2020. In this research, the indices of necessity-oriented entrepreneurship and opportunistic entrepreneurship published by the Global Entrepreneurship Observatory are used as operational substitutes for entrepreneurship. The process of measuring the size of the shadow economy is fiendishly complicated. Because people active in it try to remain unknown. Little information is always available about shady activities. Therefore, to measure the shadow economy, the results of previous calculations about the size of the shadow economy in the countries have been used for measuring the shadow economy.

The results showed that the shadow economy has a positive and significant effect on necessity-driven entrepreneurship in both groups of selected countries; the difference is that its estimated coefficient has been higher in developing countries. Also, the effect of shadow economy on opportunity-driven entrepreneurship in both groups of selected countries has been negative and significant; the difference is that its estimated coefficient is higher in developing countries. A one percent increase in the ratio of the shadow economy to GDP has caused an increase of 0.091 and 0.047 percent of necessity-oriented entrepreneurship in selected developing and developed countries, respectively. Because the increase in the shadow sector of the economy means not reporting and registering some economic activities. A one percent increase in the ratio of the shadow economy to GDP has caused a decrease of 0.185 and 0.127 percent in opportunistic entrepreneurship in selected developing and developed countries, respectively. The increase of the shadow economy and the lack of recording and reporting of economic activities lead to deviation from the competitive conditions of the market, the lack of proper allocation of resources, the prevalence of unfair competition, the reduction of government tax revenues, and the weakening of public and essential services. In addition, the effect of control variables of government institutions on necessity-driven entrepreneurship in both groups of selected countries was negative and significant and on opportunity-driven entrepreneurship in both groups of selected countries was positive and significant. The effect of control variable of education on necessity entrepreneurship has been negative and significant in both groups of selected countries. However, its effect on opportunity-driven entrepreneurship in developed selected countries has been positive and significant and in developing selected countries has not been statistically significant.

According to the main results of the research and considering the importance of opportunistic entrepreneurship in the economic growth and development of countries, whether in developing countries or in developed countries, and the negative impact of the shadow economy on this entrepreneurship, it is suggested that the control of the shadow economy It should be a priority for policymakers and to control the size of the underground economy, employment-generating policies should considered first in order to reduce the unemployment rate. Commercial liberalization and the amendment of the laws related to trade tariffs and the strengthening of the country economic and regulatory institutional structure to improve competitiveness should also be considered in order to achieve this goal.