mohammadali abdollahi

llama Tabatabai systematically introduced the theory of conventional perceptions (idrakāt iʿtibārīyah) in the sixth article of his seminal work, Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism. This theory opens up significant possibilities within the field of humanities, particularly in jurisprudence and legal studies. In this article, we aim first to elucidate the theory of conventional perceptions and then explore how it can underpin the conceptual foundations of law. Allama Tabatabai distinguishes between pre-social (qabl al-ijtimaʿ) and post-social (baʿd al-ijtimaʿ) practical conventions, thereby explaining the fundamental and enduring roots of human conventions in both individual and social behavior. Among these, the principle of employment (istikhdām)—a pre-social convention—plays a critical role by establishing the necessity of legal formulation and providing its foundational basis. An in-depth analysis of the principle of employment reveals that law emerges as a regulatory convention intended to limit and structure the inherently instrumental nature of human interactions, wherein individuals treat others as means to fulfill their own needs and objectives. This perspective enhances our understanding of the essence of law, showing how it functions to balance personal interests with collective well-being. In this light, Allama Tabatabai’s theory offers a robust philosophical framework for interpreting the function of law within human societies and serves as a valuable foundation for the evolution of contemporary legal thought..

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the most widely cultivated cereal and a globally significant crop. Understanding physiological trait responses to late spring cold stress in susceptible and tolerant cultivars provides insights into cold tolerance mechanisms. One critical physiological trait affected by cold stress is leaf chlorophyll content. This study aimed to investigate the changes of photosynthetic pigments and their association with SSR markers in bread wheat subjected to late spring cold stress.

Changes in the concentrations of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids were evaluated in 70 bread wheat varieties under two temperature treatments: +8°C (control) and -2°C (cold stress). The cultivars were grown in a greenhouse under a completely randomized design with three replications. During the reproductive stage (Zadoks growth stages 48–60), temperature treatments were applied by gradually reducing the temperature from 24°C to the target temperature at a rate of -2°C per hour. Plants were maintained at the target temperature for two hours before being returned to 24°C. Sampling for trait measurements and molecular experiments was conducted 24 hours after the stress treatment.

Mean comparisons revealed significant variations among cultivars across temperature treatments. For chlorophyll a, Moghan2 exhibited the highest change (20.70), while Karaj3 showed the lowest (4.30). For chlorophyll b, Chamran2 showed the highest change (7.78 mg.g⁻¹), whereas Baharan showed the lowest (0.16). Total chlorophyll changes were highest in Moghan2 (20.70) and lowest in Karaj3 (4.30). For carotenoids, Ehsan exhibited the highest change (1.75), while Neyshabour displayed the lowest (0.009). Cultivars with minimal pigment changes were identified as potentially tolerant to late spring cold stress. Marker-trait association analysis identified specific SSR markers linked to pigment traits under control and stress conditions. Four SSR markers were identified under control conditions (+8°C) and four under cold stress (-2°C) for chlorophyll a. For chlorophyll b, three SSR markers were linked under control conditions and five under cold stress conditions. Total chlorophyll was associated with five SSR markers under both environments. Four SSR markers were identified under control conditions for carotenoids, while only one was detected under cold stress.

Structure analysis revealed that most genotypes were not clustered based on origin or growth type. Due to significant genotype × environment interactions, marker-trait associations were analyzed separately for control and stress conditions. More quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified at 8°C than at -2°C. Several markers showed consistent associations across environments, demonstrating high stability and utility for marker-assisted selection. These results highlight the efficacy of SSR markers in evaluating genetic diversity and population structure among wheat genotypes, providing valuable tools for breeding programs aimed at improving cold tolerance.

The analysis of the relationship between reason and morality is as old as the history of thought, and philosophers from ancient Greece have always had a serious concern for evaluating this relationship. Taha Abd al-Rahman, an important Moroccan philosopher who is considered among the important thinkers of the Islamic world, is also trying to do something new by examining the concept of reason and morality and measuring the relationship between the two. In his thought, modern rationality is an element that is opposed to morality. To understand the nature of reason, he mentions three types of reason, whose analysis is necessary to understand the relationship between reason and morality. These three types of intellect are Abdur Rahman's innovative division, which can be considered as the basis of his moral system. In his opinion, the difference between humans and animals is morality, not reason . A rationality that is based on morality and constantly considers ethics as a supervisor and ruler has value, not that rationality that is alien to morality. In this article, after analyzing the two concepts of reason and morality in Abdul Rahman's thought, we will evaluate his approach regarding the relationship between reason and morality.

Today, although the debates related to knowledge have expanded, the question of the possibility of knowledge and certainty is still the starting point of epistemological debates. Wittgenstein and Moore are two influential philosophers of the 20th century who stand in an important position against each other. Moore is the only philosopher that Wittgenstein mentions in the book On Certainty and it was Moores view on knowledge that is the basis of the Austrian philosopher for further discussions about knowledge and certainty. In response to the problem of the possibility of knowledge and the problem of skepticism, Moore claims that there are facts that we know and have knowledge of. He lists a list of propositions whose knowledge is certain. Wittgensteins approach to this claim has a negative and a positive side. According to Wittgenstein, Moores propositions such as here is a hand are not correct examples of knowledge or knowing Moore does not use them correctly. There is a difference between knowledge and certainty. Knowledge and certainty belong to different categories. On the other hand, Wittgenstein is with Moore in attributing a different role to the mentioned propositions in the epistemic system. Wittgensteins criticism of Moore does not weaken the epistemological status of Moores propositions, but gives a more fundamental basis to such propositions.

Traditional philosophers of religion were convinced that God could be spoken of meaningfully, but at the beginning of the twentieth century, logical positivists compromised this. They set new boundaries in defining meaningful propositions from According to verification principle, a statement about the fact is only a real and original sentence if experience can show its truth or falsehood. From the point of view of logical positivists, religious propositions do not accept this criterion, they are non-original and meaningless. The criterion of verification gave way to the criterion of falsiblity after facing very serious criticism. Critics of verification have denied it on the basis of some, and others, such as John Hick, have tried to prove religious propositions by advancing the eschatological verification. Hick's main claim is that, firstly, in the meaning and concept of "verify" and "proof", doubt has been obtained. Proof in any sense must be able to remove doubt. Secondly, there is no concept of proof of actuality, but also the possibility of research and proof for meaning. Having one statement is enough. Is the way that John Hick has proposed to solve the meaningful dilemma of the religious propositions that has called the eschatological verification a satisfactory way? In this article, we try to explain Hick's point of view and evaluate in a critical way.

Religion and technology are pervasive phenomena of human life and their interaction has taken various forms. The purpose of this research is to formulate types of synergy between religion and technology (superficial, incorrect and incomplete). Also, a favorable and responsible approach to this relationship is presented from the perspective of a technological person and a religious person. The purpose of religion is to educate a person; The highest goal of religious education is to reach closeness as a formative reality; So, in this research, the effect of synergy between religion and technology is explained and analyzed to clarify its effect in reaching this goal. The research method is descriptive-analytical. The findings show that although religion and technology can benefit from each other in multiple ways, sharing in the search for excellence has caused new aspects of their synergy. In this research, the type of religious man's encounter with technology and the technological man's encounter with religion are drawn. The focal position of the concept of closeness in Islamic education is paid attention to highlight the superstructure and underlying reflections on the relationship between religion and technology for the guardians of education who are interested in both religious growth and the intelligentization of educational centers and content. The results of the research show that the face of technology itself and its aspects that serve the basic needs of mankind, consciously or unconsciously lead to closeness; But when technology is used for selfish human policies and procedures, it is destructive and undesirable.

Since society is among the contingent entities, its existence is dependent on Necessary Existence. God, as the agent and creator of the contingent world, grants the existence of society through human wills and actions, in such a way that the existence of society cannot be reconciled with its non-existence. The divine traditions that we can know through the revealed and rational structures are the basis of our existence and all other realities. Just as realism is the precondition of our existence and all scientific and rational theories, divine traditions also -with the same extent and with the same breadth- provide the basis for our individual and social lives. Accordingly, society is a collection of divine traditions and its emergence requires collective action. Divine traditions, as the constitutive principles, play a causal role in the existence and survival of society. This paper, using a descriptive-analytical method, also deals with some consequences of this understanding of society, the most important of which are: the centrality of human primordial nature in perceiving divine traditions and formation of society, reverse predication in predicating tradition upon society, the necessity of immateriality of society, rejecting relativism, and preserving human volition and responsibility.

Since the time of Aristotle, some philosophers have insisted on the point that a part of knowledge is more fundamental than other parts. There have been various forms of foundationalism in epistemology, ethics and logic, and each of them has considered a certain matter as the basis according to the field under discussion. Avrum Stroll believes that Wittgenstein is a fundamentalist, but his fundamentalism is completely different from the approach of traditional fundamentalists, and Wittgenstein's intelligent distinction between knowledge and its foundations keeps his fundamentalism away from the problems that traditional fundamentalists have. Stroll enumerates nine conditions for fundamentalism and believes that these nine conditions exist in Wittgenstein's epistemological system. He believes that Wittgenstein gives two different understandings of the basis of certain beliefs, one is relative (propositional) fundamentalism and the other is absolute (non-propositional) fundamentalism, and over time Wittgenstein moves away from relative fundamentalism and leans towards absolute fundamentalism. In this article, after clarifying Stroll's argument about Wittgenstein's fundamentalism and the difference between this fundamentalism and its traditional interpretations, we examine Stroll's distinction between Wittgenstein's two conceptions of fundamentalism and show what characteristics each of these two conceptions has and how Wittgenstein prefers the absolute fundamentalism and expands it.

Defenders of the error theory believe that no moral knowledge can be found. They consider morality to be just a pleasant legend inherited from our ancestors. Russ Shafer-Landau a famous contemporary moral philosopher, believes that what the defenders of the error theory pursue is not only an attack on a specific moral point of view, but they seek to make the entire moral theory ineffective. According to Russ Shafer-Landau , the followers of the error theory to defend their claim must show that firstly, the acceptance of ethics depends on commitment to moral objectivity and the absoluteness of moral reasons, and secondly, even in the assumption that ethics is based on these two presuppositions, Less than one of these two assumptions is false.  In this article, by examining the strongest arguments against moral objectivity from Russ Shafer-Landau's point of view and revealing their ineffectiveness, we show that the arguments of the defenders of the error theory against objective morality are, at best and strongest, sterile, and therefore skepticism and the impossibility of knowledge Morality is not a correct view of morality.

Moral realism is one of the most important approaches in meta-ethics. Accepting this approach or denying it has a unique role in the intellectual system of a moral philosopher. Louis Pojman, an eminent American philosopher, is one of the most important defenders of moral realism. He believes that skepticism and moral nihilism represented by Mackey and Harman are the most important attacks on moral realism, and if realism can be safely passed through these two scientific paths, this important ethical approach can be easily accepted.  In this article, after presenting Mackie's two fundamental arguments that is, reasoning through relativity and queerness, we try to show the inadequacies of his argument according to Pojman's point of view. In the following, we discuss the inefficiency of Harman's anti-comparison hypothesis and reveal how moral realities exist, and finally, we discuss Pojman's approach in defense of moral realism.

For Spinoza mind and body are the same substance. Thus, mind and body are ontologically the same thing, the same reality or substance. The mind is inseparable from the body, and vice versaThis unity of mind and body as one substance is in contrast to Descartes' belief that mind and body are separate substances.Spinoza believed the mind and body are different conceptually but not ontologically.Spinoza not only believed this ontological division of mind from body or nature was incorrect, but he also viewed this separation as unhealthy and unethical. He believed that a knowledge of the unity between mind and nature was essential to an ethical life.The mind and body, for Spinoza, act simultaneously, or as mirror images of each other, so we cannot even say that one determines the other. Thought is the consciousness of extension and extension is the manifestation of thought, and neither has any freedom from the other.

Frege argues that, contrary to thoughts that are concrete entities and independent of all minds, the content of an individual's mind (sense impressions, feelings, imaginations and so on) -that he calls ideas- are incommunicable in linguistic contact. His argument is that ideas depend on the knower and thus are private. In his theory of speech acts, Searle proposes the principle of expressibility which seems to refute the possibility of incommunicability of ideas. According to the principle of expressibility, "whatever can be intended can be said". Searle claims that this principle by itself does not repudiate private language and thus does not negate the possibility of the incommunicable.In their essay, the authors try to study this principle in the light of linguistic turn, its results and epistemological implications. Searle's theory of meaning suggests that understanding of the absolute private and its being rendered into experience is not possible, and if possible, it cannot carry a meaningful expression. Accordingly, in Searle's view, even mental entities -contrary to what Frege has said- are not absolutely private and inexpressible.

Probably the first thing that every scholar in Philosophy learns about Wittgenstein is the fact that he developed two approaches regarding language in during his life and philosophical thinking, and accordingly nobody hesitates to call him a philosopher of language (in the sense of being as a philosopher whose main concern is the analysis and exposition of language). But the fundamental necessity that made Wittgenstein to do inquiry about language has not been considered yet. The aim in present paper is to deal with this neglected issue in Wittgenstein` s though and the writes attempt to clarify that the ground of Wittgenstein’s questioning about language and also the origin of his special way of thinking is the fundamental experience of wonder on being and seeing the beings as miracles. Wittgenstein encounters the borders of language and experiences the linguistic character of human being (or his being-in-the-language) so that he can say: The existence of language is the language of existence. Our main sources for explanation of this experience will be “Notebooks”, “Tractatus” and “A Lecture on Ethics”.

This study aimed to identify the role moderated professional ethics in the relationship between psychological capital and organizational identity was conducted in Mashhad, Gas Company. To study the psychological capital from Luthans questionnaire (2007) and to study organizational identity from Cheney questionnaire (1983) and to study professional ethics from kadozier questionnaire (2002) was used. The results of this study, both descriptive and inferential statistics have been analyzed. In the level of description from parameters of frequency, percentage, etc. and inferential have also benefited from structural equation. The population consisted of all employees in Mashhad gas is about 250 people, that according to Cochran formula the sample size was 152 people. To verify the validity of the content and appearance of expert supervision and using confirmatory factor analysis was used that The result indicated approved questionnaire.also from The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to verify the questionnaire.and reliability respectively at the level 0/92 and 0/87 and 0/846 for psychological capital and organizational identity and professional ethics was. The results of the test showed that the main hypothesis is confirmed. The results of the research from sub-assumptions confirmed the role of the moderator all components except (justice-fairness and compassion) is the relationship between psychological capital and organizational identity.

This study aimed to identify the relationship between psychological capital and organizational identity has been done in the National Gas Company of Mashhad. To study the psychological capital from Lufthansa questionnaire (2007) and to study organizational identity from Cheney questionnaire (1983) was used. The results of this study, both descriptive and inferential statistics have been analyzed.In the level of description from parameters of frequency, percentage, etc. and inferential have also benefited from structural equation. The population consisted of all employees in Mashhad gas is about 250 people, that according to Cochran formula the sample size was 152 people. To verify the validity of the content and appearance of expert supervision and using confirmatory factor analysis was used that The result indicated approved questionnaire.also from The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to verify the questionnaire.and reliability respectively at the level 0/92 and 0/87 for psychological capital and organizational identity was. The results of the test showed that the main hypothesis in this organization there is a relationship between psychological capital and organizational identity. Also the results of the research of Sub assumptions showed thatAmong the components of psychological capital (hope and resilience) there is no relationship with organizational identity.

Molla Sadra is counted among those of special approach toward the limits of reason in perceiving Quran as a Divinely revealed text. He views Divine law as something not separable from reason and Quran as something reasonable. The role of reason, therefore, in his principles and philosophical rules is considerable. He considers deep thinking on Quranic verses to be linked to deep thinking on the world of existence. In this way, Sadra introduces Quran as a light in the shadow of which the origion and the end and the reality of beings become attainable and visible for man. Molla Sadra believes in a degree of inner aspect for Quran in accordance with human perfection grades. For him, super man would be of consider degrees of perfection with regard to reason. Sadra knows using reason as an essential ground for perceiving the truth and inner meaning of Quran. On such a basis, hermeneutics is essential for interpreting Quran and is counted as a vast field for perceiving the true meaning of it.

The dilemma of induction is one of the most difficult philosophical problems that if solved many philosophical problems could be explained and many conclusions could scientifically be justifiable. Bertrand Russell، one of the greatest analyzer philosophers of the twentieth century، has tried to solve the problem of induction. From the Russell’s point of view the dilemma of induction is a question of how to justify the general provisions، causal laws، and indirect knowledge. He appealed that the principle of uniformity of nature is not enough to solve this problem، and then he suggested the reception of induction as a principle. Based on the principle of induction، the more the number of concurrences of A and B the greater is the possibility of perpetual coincidence between them and when the number of concurrences is enough constant conjunction of A with B is almost certain. According to Russell، the principle of induction is neither rationally provable nor empirically verifiable، but the principle should be accepted because of its natural evidence and finally because of its consequences. According to Russell the metalogical principles cause the probability of generalization lean toward certainty. Finally he notes although induction can’t provide us with theoretical certainty (logical and mathematical) but its near certainty probability is more than that of a metaphysical dogma.

Action is unit of Linguistic communication. It means that Linguistic communication could not be analyzed only by Linguistic contractions and rules of a special language. Thus every type of Linguistic communication is a type of creation and speech act. Hereupon, a Linguistic philosopher or a usuli must not content with semantic level of language for verbal analyzing, But he must discover and explicate general rules of language specially rules of application. Since meaning is specified by speech act. Therefore structure of a proposition can be specified and the meaning of affirmation and negation of a proposition can be understood only if it is regarded as a type of speech act. This article addition to explanation theory of Linguistic communication as action, try to present how understanding of reality of meaning, elements of proposition and affirmation or negation of it, is based on this theory.

It is clear that the logical positivism is result of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. But Wittgenstein’s critique of his opinion about language in Philosophical Investigations opened the way for religion be free from the positivistic reductionism. Although religion has not play role in Wittgenstein’s later works but his remarks about religion in his lectures and conversations was effective so that someone speak of "Wittgenstein’s fideism".In this assay, I show that Wittgenstein’s argument on the impossibility of private language as a philosophical basis how can instate of inexpressibility of religious statements explains the role of concept of God in the human life.After Wittgenstein’s death, although, some introduce his opinion as "fideism", but I show that, according to the works, this interpretation is wrong.

One of the most important and novel philosophical issues proposed by Wittgenstein in his late stage of thought and in his influential book Philosophical Investigations is the issue of private language. This issue is so important that one can say the epistemology of second half of twentieth century is entirely under its influence. Wittgenstein believes that the only way to get rid of epistemological and semantic skepticism is the rejection of private language. Furthermore, the problem of other minds, which has been an insoluble problem due to acceptance of the theory of private language, becomes fundamentally dissolved by rejecting the private language. While other solutions to the problem of other minds such as the argument from analogy and behaviorism suffer from many problems.

It is common place to consider feelings as private; but Wittgenstein disagrees. He believes such an idea leads to agnosticism and solipsism. According to the common understanding, feelings are private in two senses: 1. in an epistemological sense, which has two aspects: a) only an individual can know one’s own feelings; b) no one can know others’ feelings (Wittgenstein believes that the first aspect is meaningless and the second one is wrong). 2. The second sense is related to “having”, that is, each person has one’s own feelings; therefore, there are no similar feelings in two different persons (Wittgenstein insists that this sense is wrong too).This article tries to show that Wittgenstein considers the privacy of feelings a merely grammatical subject, without designating a private matter. Of course, he thinks that feelings can be private as far as they remain secrete and have no external expression.