nanoencapsulation

Nowadays, the attention and desire of consumers to the role of food in health and nutrition has led the manufacturers to produce functional food and researchers to study this field. Polyphenols are secondary metabolites produced by many plants. They have anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and antioxidants activities. Despite all the mentioned benefits, due to the vulnerability of phenolic compounds to the environmental conditions and their low bioavailability in the digestive system, efforts have been made to encapsulate them with nanoniosomes. Encapsulation of polyphenolic compounds with nanoniosomes is an effective way to increase their stability and bioavailability as well ashinder their undesirable taste and smell. Niosomes are class of bi-layered structure formed by hydration of non-ionic surfactant, cholesterol or other amphiphilic molecules. This structure has two hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties, so it has the ability to be encapsulated with different solubility. Fortification food with polyphenols promotes community health. Therefore, the aim of this research was to produce nanoniosomes containing polyphenolic compounds, and to determine their important physical and chemical properties.

In this research, four polyphenol-loaded nanoniosomes were prepared using Span 60 and Tween 80 surfactants with a ratio of 3:1, and cholesterol with the concentration of 0, 10, 20 and 30 (mg/140 mg surfactant) as F1, F2, F3 and F4 treatments respectively. Physicochemical properties of the polyphenol-loaded niosomes (particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency (EE)) were analyzed, and the formulation with the best characteristics was selected based on having the smallest size, less PDI and the highest EE. The selected formula was analyzed for morphology (scanning electron microscope (SEM)) and probably interactions (Fourier transforms infrared spectrometry (FTIR)). Additionally, the ability to preserve polyphenolic compounds as free or inside the nanonisomes during the storage period of 60 days was investigated. Further, the in vitro release of polyphenol from niosomes (gastric and intestinal simulated fluid) was also evaluated. The experiment was performed as completely randomized design (CRD) and the obtained data were analyzed with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Results indicated that the effect of using different amounts of cholesterol on the average particle size (Z-average) of nanonisomes was significant (p<0.05). With increasing cholesterol up to 20 mg (F1 to F3), the Z-average decreased, but with further increase to 30 mg (F4), the Z-average increased. Different concentrations of cholesterol showed significant influence on the PDI of nanonisomes. The minimum value was observed for F3 (20 mg cholesterol) and the maximum for F4. The incorporation of cholesterol in the nanonisomes decreased the zeta potential (p<0.05), dedicated an increased electrostatical stability of the particle, and the values were in the range of -50.35 to -65.36 mV. The value of EE was in the range of 88-95%, and F3 treatment had the maximum EE. Based on particle size, PDI, zeta potential and EE, F3 was selected as the best nanoparticle for other assays. According to the FTIR results, there was no change in the spectrum of nanonisome (F3) containing polyphenol peaks, and the polyphenols were properly enclosed in the nanonisomal vesicles without changing its nature. SEM results also showed vesicles with a uniform and appropriate structure. Nanonisome (F3) containing polyphenol was more stable than the control sample (polyphenol) during 60 days of storage at ambient temperature, which indicated the higher potential of nanonisomes to preserve the polyphenolic compounds during storage. The release behavior in the simulated digestive system (gastric and small intestine media) indicated a diffusion-based release system, and the Kopcha model was the best model to describe the release behavior of polyphenol from the fabricated niosomes in the simulated digestive environment.

According to the results of this research, it is concluded that nanoencapsulation of polyphenols as a rich source of antioxidant properties inside the nanonisomes can be an effective strategy to maintain their nutritional value. These nanonisomes can be utilized to produce functional foods, and the effects of their addition on the physico-chemical properties of a model food can be investigated.

In this study, anthocyanin and phenolic compounds were extracted from pomegranate peel powder with supercritical CO2 and Lepidium perfoliatumseed gum and maltodextrin were used as the nanoencapsulation wall. The nanoencapsulation extract was dried with a freeze dryer. Color stability and antioxidant activity of nanoencapsulation extract were evaluated. The levels of anthocyanin and phenolic compounds were evaluated by differential pH and Folin-Ciocalteu method, respectively. Particle size, nanoencapsulation efficiency of anthocyanin,nanoencapsulation phenol, color stabilityat different temperatures and pH as well as antioxidant activity were evaluated by DPPH. The amount of anthocyanin and phenol extracted in this method was 3.943±0.133 mg/g of pomegranate peel powder and 504.521±2.537 mg/g of gallic acid per 100 g, respectively. Nanoencapsulation efficiency was higher for anthocyanin than phenols. The release of anthocyanin at different pHs was different, so that anthocyanin behaved differently at different pHs. Polymerization and color increased with increasing temperature. The antioxidant activity of the fine-grained extract by DPPH method increased with increasing concentration and its IC50 was equivalent to 1.092± 0.024 m /ml.

Today, due to the high nutritional value of fish, consumers' interest in using ready-to-eat foods based on fish is increasing worldwide. However, due to the presence of high amounts of protein and polyunsaturated fatty acids, aquatic products are highly sensitive to oxidation and the growth of microorganisms. The purpose of this research was to investigate the possibility of delaying oxidation and microbial spoilage and maintaining the quality and safety of rainbow salmon burgers during the storage period in the refrigerator using nano-encapsulated peppermint essential oil. Peppermint essential oil was nanoencapsulated by using a combination of gum arabic and soy protein isolate. Then it was added to the fish burger formulation at the levels of 0, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.15%. The values of pH, total volatile nitrogen bases (TVN), peroxide indices (PV) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA), and total count of bacteria were tested during the 12-day storage period at 4°C. Particle size, PDI index, zeta potential and microencapsulation efficiency of peppermint essential oil nanocapsules were 297.4 nm, 0.328 nm, -32.17 mV and 87.24%, respectively. During the storage period, pH, TVB-N, PV and TBA values of burgers increased. Peppermint essential oil nanocapsules showed significant antioxidant and antimicrobial activity and reduced the rate of fat oxidation and bacterial growth in fish burgers. There was a positive correlation between the concentration of essential oil nanocapsules and its antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. The greatest effect of inhibiting the growth of bacteria and reducing the rate of oxidation of fats was observed in the burger containing 0.15% nanocapsules. The results of this research suggest the use of peppermint essential oil nanocapsules at a concentration of 0.15% in order to maintain quality, reduce the rate of oxidation and microbial spoilage in fish burgers.

Nowadays, meat and meat products consumption has increased rapidly due to their high nutritional benefits (Ansarian et al., 2022). Generally, meat is known as an important source of B vitamins and trace elements and greatly contributes to the daily intake of these micronutrients. (Nikmaram et el., 2011). High moisture and nutrient levels make veal meat highly susceptible to microbial spoilage, with aerobic conditions facilitating lipid and protein oxidation. The most important challenge related to meat products is their sensitivity to chemical and microbial spoilage, which can be delayed by using preservatives and increasing the shelf life of meat products. (Oliveira et al., 2022). Oxidative reactions of meat and meat products can cause serious risks to food safety and public health. Antioxidants can effectively retard the oxidation of lipids and proteins. (Ansarian et al., 2022). The antimicrobial activity of corn tassel extract can be attributed to the presence of high phenolic compounds such as Gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid, and the antimicrobial effect of these compounds is through destroying the cell wall, blocking ion transport pathways, and preventing the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate(ATP). (Elsayed et al., 2022). Over the past few years, many researchers have attempted to prolong the shelf life of foods with a wide range of methods, among which the use of films and coatings prepared from natural products seems highly promising given the health-related problems of synthesized preservatives and the deteriorative effects of thermal. Various organic substances such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins can be used to develop edible films and coatings. (Lashkari et al., 2020).Microencapsulation of plant extracts using biopolymer walls due to increasing the stability of microencapsulated materials by protecting them from environmental, enzymatic, and chemical changes, providing a buffer state against pH changes, dealing with thermal changes and ionic changes, protecting against unpleasant tastes and odors, and the controlled release of micro-coated material can be used as a method to increase the shelf life (Safari et al., 2022). Among these substances, polysaccharides alone and in combination with proteins such as sesame protein isolate are highly regarded for such applications due to possessing appropriate film-forming characteristics. Basil seed is from the basil plant, which is a member of the Labiate family. This plant is originally native to Iran, Turkey, India, and other tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Fresh or dried basil leaves are used as a seasoning all over the world and its essential oils are used in pharmaceuticals and flavorings. (Kheshtchin et al., 2022). Therefore, polysaccharides in contact with cellular fluids tend to be quickly surrounded and then decomposed, thus enabling intracellular release, in addition, the presence of hydrophilic groups in their structure, such as hydroxyl, carboxyl, and amino groups, is a useful strategy for improving the bioavailability of core compounds. (Ballesta et al., 2018). Sesame meal and isolated protein are rich in methionine (4-2.5%) and sulfur-containing amino acids (3.8-5.5%). Sesame protein consists of 80% α-globulin and 20% beta-globulin. The functional and physicochemical properties of sesame protein concentrate, and isolate, as well as its use as a food supplement for drinks and bread have been reported so far (Saini et al., 2018). Corn tassels are a waste part of the corn plant, which could be considered a great source of value products such as volatile oils, the flavonol glycosides of quercetin, isorhamnetin, vitamin K and C (Guven et al., 2016), and kaempferol and lipids. Phenolic compounds exhibit a wide range of physiological properties, such as antiallergenic, anti-artherogenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antithrombotic, and cardioprotective effects. (Mohsen and Ammar 2009).

According to Iranian national standard number 2303, the ingredients in the sausage included red meat, oil, water and ice, wheat flour, starch and gluten, gums, Sodium polyphosphate, salt and spices, and onion. The raw materials were poured into a special sausage cutter and mixed, the extract of tassel nano coated with basil gum was added individually and in combination with sesame protein isolate with the highest antioxidant and antimicrobial properties and the rest of the water and ice (50%). And the machine was filled. And it was packed in Polyamide coating with food grade. The produced sausage was steamed for 60 minutes at 80°C in the cooking room until the temperature of the center of the product reaches at least 72 °C. Finally, the samples were cooled to 15°C with a cold water shower, and after reaching room temperature, they were kept at 4°C in the refrigerator until the day of the test. The factors examined in this research are physicochemical properties (pH, peroxide, TBA, TVN, release of phenolic compounds, color, organoleptic and microbial. To prepare the nanoemulsion, the extract was added at three levels of 10%, 20%, and 30% to the oil phase containing Tween 80 and sunflower oil, and was stirred for 3 minutes at 50 °C. Then, it was homogenized at different times for 5, 10 and 15 minutes using an Ultra-Turrax and at a temperature of 10°C. Basil seed gum was prepared individually and in combination with sesame protein isolate at a concentration of 30% and in ratios of 1:0 and 1:1 and stirred for 30 minutes on a magnetic stirrer. Two optimal samples with the best size from each extract were used for coating. The coating solutions were slowly added to the prepared emulsion. To further reduce the size, the prepared emulsions were subjected to probe type ultrasound for 3 minutes at room temperature, and in this way the desired nanoemulsion was prepared (Esmailzadeh Kenari et al., 2022).

The purpose of this research is to investigate the effect of antioxidant, antimicrobial properties and sensory evaluation of tassel extract coated with basil seed gum wall individually and in combination with sesame protein isolate and its effect on the shelf life of meat sausage products during storage. For this purpose, pH, peroxide, Thiobarbituric acid, and microbial tests (total count and mold and yeast) were investigated. The results of the TBA and peroxide test showed that with the passage of storage time, the amount of both factors (peroxide and TBA) in all three samples has an upward trend, and statistical data shows a significant difference between the samples. The highest amount of fat oxidation was observed in the control sample and the rate of oxidation was slower in the Nano coated samples. that this reduction rate in the extract of tassel nano-coated with a combined coating(1.78meqo2/kg) was more than the coating of basil seed gum alone (2.01meqo2/ kg). Also, the TVN factor, which is one of the factors indicating the freshness index of the product, also showed an increasing trend with the passage of time, but its amount at the end of 21 days of storage in the product containing the extract of tassel Nano-coated in the combined coating (14.9) was lower than the permissible limit (25mg/100g), and there is statistically significant difference between samples and storages day. The results of the microbial indicators showed that the addition of Nano-coated tassel extract to the sausage product leads to a decrease in the microbial load of the final product, which was the highest in the use of a combined coating. The lower microbial load in the sausage sample containing nano-coated corn tassel extract can be caused by the phenolic compounds present in the extract which is through the destruction of cell wall, blocking the ion transport pathways and preventing the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate(ATP) and the better concentration of bioactive compounds by sesame protein isolate (Elsayed et al., 2022). Also, corn tassel having low pH(acidic), caused the decrease pH in the samples and in this way it also partially prevents the growth of microorganisms. The general evaluation of the sensory index showed that the sausage sample containing the corn tassel extract coated with composite coating had higher emits than other samples and the best treatment was accepted from the evaluators' point of view.

The results of this study show that the Nano-coated corn tassel extract has good antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. So the highest amount of oxidation is related to the control sample and the lowest is related to the sample containing the extract of tassel nano-coated with a combined coating. Regarding the effect of the extract on the microbial properties of the sausage sample, the trend is according to its effect on oxidation. Also, the data obtained from the sensory evaluation showed that the sausage sample containing the extract of tassel nano-coated with a composite coating had a more favorable sensory quality compared to other samples. The evaluation of the obtained color shows that the redness of the product decreases with the passage of time and that the amount of reduction in the product containing the extract of tassel nano-coated with a combined coating is lower than in other samples.

The aim of this study was to investigate the antioxidant properties of date seed methanolic extracts of Rabbi variety and evaluating the physicochemical properties of zein nanoparticles loaded with these extracts. Ultrasonic treatment was used to extract methanolic extract from date seed powder and antisolvent precipitation method was used to encapsulate date seed methanolic extracts in amounts of 0.05, 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2 g in zein biopolymer carrier. In this study, the total phenolic content (TPC) and half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of date seed extracts of Rabbi variety in 45 min, the temperature of 500C of ultrasonic bath and 70% methanol solvent concentration were obtained respectively 369.47 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g dry weight and 5.08 µg/m1. By increasing the ratio of encapsulated extract in zein carrier from 0.1 to 0.4, the encapsulation efficiency from 85.90 to 95.19% and the size of zein particles loaded with methanolic extracts from 129.95 to 183.30 nm increased and the zeta potential of nanoparticles decreased from +19.15 to +14.48 mV. The size and zeta potential of extract-free zein particles were determined 109.30 nm and +21.96 mV, respectively. The results of ATR-FTIR analysis indicated that with increase the ratio of methanolic extract encapsulated in the zein carrier, the stretching peak of O‒H⋯O bond changed and increased from 3292.85 to 3294.85 cm-1. In Investigating the FE-SEM images, extract-free zein nanoparticles and zein nanoparticles loaded with date seed extracts had semi-spherical morphology. Overall, the hydrophobic nature of zein carrier caused it to bind with the phenolics of Rabbi date seed extract through non-covalent, van der Waals, hydrogen, and hydrophobic interactions. Therefore, it can be used as a strong carrier for the encapsulation of date seed extracts.

Today, the role of probiotics has been confirmed as beneficial microorganisms that play a role in improving health, preventing, and controlling host clinical disorders. According to the World Health Organization, if probiotics are prescribed to the host in sufficient and appropriate amounts, they can be very beneficial for health. In order to transfer the effects of probiotics to the consumer, it is necessary for probiotic microorganisms to be metabolically stable, active in food products, and able to survive in most parts of the digestive tract while also providing their beneficial effects in the host intestine. One major issue in this field is the ability of probiotic cells to survive physical and chemical attacks during their journey through the digestive system to the intestine. Recent advances have focused on improving micro-scale encapsulation techniques in order to achieve high cell viability, resistance to stomach acid, temperature resistance, and longer shelf life. However, these microencapsulation approaches still face limitations and challenges in terms of clinical translation. This present study offers a brief overview of the current progress of various probiotic encapsulation methods, with a particular emphasis on modern and emerging single cell encapsulation strategies that use nanocoatings for individual probiotic cells. Furthermore, the advantages of different nanoencapsulation methods are discussed, and future developments in coated probiotics with advanced properties and health benefits are anticipated.

The present study aimed to encapsulate thymol and resveratrol prepared with zein-caseinate composite nanoparticles and to investigate their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. For this purpose, liquid-liquid dispersion method was used to prepare zein-caseinate composite nanoparticles. In this study, the effect of different concentrations ratio of thymol and resveratrol (zero to 100%) and different ratios of core to coating (1:10 and 1:20) on the ability to inhibit DPPH free radicals, the reducing power of iron ions and antimicrobial activity on Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes was investigated in culture media and milk. The results showed that the sample containing 75% thymol and 25% resveratrol with a ratio of 1 to 10 of core to coating had the highest ability to inhibit DPPH free radicals and the reducing power of iron ions, and it was found that the increase in the coating concentration except for the sample containing 75% thymol, led to an increase in the Inhibition power of DPPH free radicals and reducing power of iron ion. Listeria bacteria in the TSB culture medium were the most sensitive bacteria to the prepared samples, and the strongest prepared nanoparticles, which had the lowest MIC and MBC, belonged to the sample containing 75% thymol and 25% resveratrol with a core-to-wall ratio of 1:10, and in most samples, The bacteria in milk were more resistant to these nanoparticles than the culture medium. Finally, it can be said that the sample containing 75% thymol and 25% resveratrol with a core-to-wall ratio of 1 to 10 can be selected as a combination with appropriate antioxidant and antimicrobial power.

Following the concerns created in the field of using synthetic preservatives in various foods, it seems necessary to pay attention to natural compounds with preservative properties. Phycocyanin extracted from spirulina microalgae is one of these compounds. The aim of the present study was to extract (using enzymatic method) and nanoencapsulation of this pigment with maltodextrin-sodium caseinate combination coating and evaluate the antioxidant and antibacterial activity (against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia ruckeri and Streptococcus iniae) of nanocapsules in comparison with pure phycocyanin. The results showed that with increasing the concentration of phycocyanin (in both pure and nanoencapsulated forms), the antioxidant and antibacterial activity of the treatments increased significantly (p<0.05). Comparison of the properties of the treatments on days 0 and 60 (stored at -18°C) showed that the antioxidant and antibacterial activity of pure phycocyanin was significantly reduced over time (p<0.05). But the nanoencapsulation technique prevents the mentioned properties from changing and helps to preserve them. Among gram-positive bacteria, Listeria monocytogenes was more sensitive than the other two bacteria and all concentrations used had an inhibitory effect on this bacteri. Staphylococcus aureus was resistant to two concentrations of 2.5 and 5 μg/ml and Streptococcus iniae to three concentrations of 2.5, 5 and 10 μg/ml. Among the two gram-negative bacteria, Yersinia ruckeri was more sensitive and the concentrations used, with the exception of concentrations of 2.5 and 5 μg/ml, had an inhibitory effect on both bacteria. According to the results of the dilution method, for the studied bacteria, the MIC range was between 50-500 and the MBC between 100-500 μg/ml. Also, the lowest MIC was recorded for Listeria monocytogenes and the highest MBC was recorded for Streptococcus iniae. It can be concluded from this research that first, pure phycocyanin has antioxidant and antibacterial activity; second, nanoencapsulation of this pigment with combined coating of maltodextrin-sodium caseinate improves these properties and their stability during the storage period.

Due to the concerns about the use of artificial colors in various foods, it is necessary to pay attention to sources with natural colors. One of these sources is the algae Spirulina, which contains the blue pigment phycocyanin. The aim of the present study in the first stage was to extract this pigment from the algae by enzymatic method and its nanoencapsulation. In the second stage, the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles were investigated. Finally, phycocyanin in both free and nano forms was added to the ice cream formulation and the qualitative and sensory properties of the product were evaluated in comparison with the control. The results showed that the produced nanoparticles have an average size of 397.1 nm. The encapsulation efficiency of the process was recorded 73.41%. According to the images recorded using scanning electron microscopy, the nanoparticle with different dimensions are scattered in the microscopic spread so that the particles are visible in different sizes. The release results of nanoparticles in vitro showed that at pH=1.2, the release percentage of phycocyanin is low (the first 2 hours). So that it fluctuates in the range of 7 to 13%. But after this stage (pH=7.4), the release rate increased significantly and from 35 to 71% at 3 and 4 hours, respectively. The use of pure phycocyanin in ice cream formulation improved the hardness, melting percentage, texture, hardness, crystalline intensity and coldness. But these indices were reported at a more favorable level in the treatment formulated with nanoencapsulated phycocyanin. The color index in ice cream formulated with pure phycocyanin was more desirable and more acceptable compared to the treatment with nanoencapsulated phycocyanin. Due to the properties of phycocyanin, especially the nanoencapsulated form, it can be used as a biological dye and improver the quality and sensory properties in various ice creams.

Fresh grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) show severe lesions at the post-harvest stage and during the storage period. Decreasing the quality of grapes in the post-harvest stage limits its consumption and commercialization. Some methods such as using bio-control agents, natural antimicrobials, physical methods, disinfectants agents ,GRAS, (ozone, ethanol, acetic acid) have been used to control Botrytis cinerea after harvest. Encapsulation of the essential oils will increase their ability by increasing the effectiveness of the essential oils. Currently, chitosan has been interested for encapsulating bioactive compounds, as they are generally known to be safe and possess superior biological properties such as biodegradability, biocompatibility and non-toxicity. The aim of this study was to encapsulate thyme essential oil in chitosan nanogels to enhance and maintain its antifungal effect against B. cinerea in vitro and in vitro on Shahroodi red grape.

For the purpose of this study, chitosan nanogels were first prepared and the infrared spectrum of chitosan-meric acid nanogels was measured using FT-IR430 infrared spectrophotometer at 20 ° C. The morphology of chitosan-meric acid nanogels and encapsulated essential oil was analyzed by SEM. Release test was then performed to determine the release rate of thyme essential oil encapsulated in chitosan-meric acid nanogels. Effect of chitosan-meristic acid nanogels at three levels of 0, 150 and 300 µl/L, pure thyme essential oil and thyme essential oil encapsulated in chitosan-meristic acid nanogels at three levels of 0, 75 and 150 µl / L in vitro and on the shelf life of grape fruits was studied under modified atmospheric conditions during 72 days storage at 2 to 4 °C. During storage, some traits such as firmness by manual penetrometer, electrical conductivity of fruit tissue, some components of fruit skin color and soluble solids were assessed by a refrectometer.

 Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) results confirmed the successful coupling between chitosan amin groups and carboxylic acid-meristic acid groups and scanning electron microscopy image showed that the particle size of chitosan-meric acid nanogel was than 100 nm. The Comparison of the particle size in the present study with the previous studies on the size of chitosan-meric acid nanogels was smaller and more uniform. These differences could be related to several reasons, transform the long chitosan chain into smaller fragments by initial sonication, the important role of ultrasound in the reduction of the particle size and passing the nanogels through the filter. Release test showed that the diffusion of thyme essential oil from chitosan-meric acid nanogels has a two-step process. The chitosan-meric acid nanogels prepared in this study have hydrophilic (chitosan polymer) and hydrophilic (meristic acid fatty acid chain) regions, which led to the gradual release of thyme essential oil due to their hydrophobic nature. The results of the infected packaged berries confirmed that with increasing concentration of thyme essential oil, the antifungal effect was also increased. Evaluation of the effects of essential oil and nanogels - essential oils on grape berries infected with pathogenic spores showed the highest number of spores in control treatment (10.125 × 105 per ml) and the lowest number in NE2 (1.375 × 105 per ml) were observed. Coating treatments of chitosan-meric acid nanogel and thyme essential oil encapsulated in chitosan-meric acid nanogels showed better results at higher concentrations, but in the case of essential oil, lower spores were observed. The lowest electrical conductivity and discoloration, the highest L * component and chroma index were observed in thyme essential oil treatment with concentration of 75 µl/l. The results showed that the lower concentrations of the essential oil in the control of botrytis cinerea was better than the pure essential oils, whereas in the experiments on the storage of grape fruit, the treatment of thyme essential oil with a concentration of 75 µl/l It showed the most favorable result. Based on the results of the present study, the effect of essential oil nano-gel and essential oil alone on the shelf life after harvesting of grapes packed with polyethylene film confirmed that the essential oil performance was better than the essential oil nanogel. The lower performance of the essential oil nanogel than that of the essential oil alone can be due to inhibition of the essential oil diffusion through the packaging film while, the encapsulated essential oil release slower than the essential oil alone, it is likely to have an effect longer than expected in this study for the storage period of the grape. Considering this case and the antimicrobial capability of essential oil nanogel, it is necessary to investigate the effect of essential oil nanogel compared to essential oil on longevity of grapes for a longer of storage period.

In this study alyssum homolocarpum seed gum (AHSG) nanocapsules containing D-limonene were fabricated by electrospraying process. For this purpose, D-limonene emulsions with constant AHSG (0.5% w/w) and two different flavor concentrations (10 or 20% based on gum weight) were prepared. The effects of physical properties of emulsions (rheological properties, droplet size, surface tension and electrical conductivity) on the morphology of capsules were studied. The results indicated that the droplet size and electrical conductivity of emulsions was mainly affected by concentration of D-limonene. Consequently, morphology and particle size of nanocapsules obtained from two emulsions, were somewhat different due to their difference in flavor content. FE-SEM images confirmed the success of electrospraying process for production of round and smooth AHSG nanocapsules with narrow size distribution. AHSG nanocapsules showed high encapsulation efficiency (more than 87%). Stability assay revealed a relatively good storage stability of encapsulated D-limonene and the maximum loss in 90 days was 11.67%. The release of D-limonene from AHSG nanocapsules was performed quickly, completely and fairly uniform due to the small and uniform size of particles. The kinetic modeling indicated that the data of D-limonene release in both artificial saliva and deionized water media were well fitted to the Korsmeyer-Peppas models.

This study was investigated whit aimed to the effect of unsaponifiable matter (USM) of Tarom rice bran oil on free and nano-encapsulated form in oxidative stability of soybean oil. For this purpose nanoencapsulation of USM by chitosan and Lepidium perfoliatum</em> seed gum (LPSG) as wall material were performed and particle size, encapsulation efficiency and also antioxidant activity before and after nanoencapsulation were measured. The effect of free and nano-encapsulated forms and synthetic antioxidant TBHQ on oxidative stability of soybean oil were evaluated by peroxide value (PV), conjugated dien (CD), thiobarbituric acid (TBA) and color index and also release of phenolic and tocopherol compounds were measured. The results of this study showed that the nano-encapsulated sample by LPSG had particle size and encapsulation efficiency higher than that of the nano-encapsulated sample by chitosan, and also the antioxidant activity of USM decreased after nanoencapsulation. In the study of oxidative stability of soybean oil, our results showed that in the early stages of storage, USM of rice bran oil and nano-encapsulated samples increased the oxidation rate of soybean oil, but further free USM has shown better antioxidant activity compared to nano-encapsulated samples, and nano-encapsulated sample by LPSG had better antioxidant activity than the nano-encapsulated sample by chitosan. However, the synthetic antioxidant TBHQ showed higher antioxidant activity and better performance.

The aim of the present research was to encapsulate cumin essential oil with phosphatidylcholine to overcome the fortification difficulties such as low water solubility and bioavailability and was protected umin essential oil from degradation in the presence of oxygen, light and temperatures. Cumin essential oil loaded nanophytosome (60 mg phosphatidylcholine- 30 mg cumin essential oil) was prepared by thin layer hydration method. Physicochemical properties of nanophytosome such as particle size, polydispersity index, encapsulation efficiency turbidity and zeta potential were investigated. Cumin essential oil nanophytosome showed excellent characteristics i.e. sub 100 nm particle sizes, low size distribution (PDI<0.3). and encapsulation efficiency 94/46 %. The turbidity of cumin essential oil loaded nanophytosome were remained unchanged and ζ-potential changed from +9 mV in blank nanophytosome to -19 mV in cumin essential oil loaded nanophytosome. The release rate increased gradually by increasing time. About 60% of free cumin essential oil were released in phoshphat buffer during 6 houre while 50 % of encapsulated cumin essential oil were released during 24 houre. In vitro release of essential oil was followed an exponential equation (first order Q (t) = a· (1-exp (-k·t))). This study indicates that the release of bioactive compounds from liposomes can be reduced by capsulated with phosphatidylcholine, allowing an application of with a nanophytosome controlled release of Cumin essential oil in water-based foods.

In this study the extract of metka was obtained using ultrasonic-assisted and maceration method and then total phenolic content (TPC) and flavonoids of these extracts were measured. Antioxidant activity of extract was evaluated by using DPPH radical scavenging method. The total phenol and flavonoids in ultrasonic assisted extract were higher than maceration and by increasing in extract concentration, antioxidant activity of extract increased. The antioxidant activity of 2000 ppm and 2500 ppm of extract and 100 ppm of TBHQ was not significant statistical difference (p<0.05) and extract in 2000 ppm concentration used selected to adding in oil and encapsulation. Marv gum and resin gum in 0:1, 1:1 and 1:0 ratios used as wall materials. The particle sizes of nanocapsules werevaried from 83.6 to 180.5 nm. Peroxide value, thiobarbituric value and color index of soybean oil which storage at 60 °C for 40 days were measured. All three evaluated factors in all samples increased and oil samples containing encapsulated metka extract with marv:resin wall had the least oxidation. The antioxidant effects of these nanocapsules related to phenolic compounds of metka extract and these nanocapsule can be successfully replace by synthetic antioxidant.

The nanoencapsulation and targeted delivery of nutritional ingredients in the right location and appropriate time within the digestive tract is one of the key elements in fabricating functional food products and to deliver the bioactive components incorporated in these foodstuff. With respect to the complexities of the food network and the gastrointestinal system, it seems necessary to determine a method in order to evaluate and predict the release level of the wrapped bioactive component in the desired location and time. In this study, the release behavior of limonene from amylose nanostructures were examined considering the circumstances of the digestive system and next the adaptive-network-based fuzzy inference system was used to model the release behavior of limonene. In the design of this model, limonene concentration, amylose concentration, the time of the execution of ultrasonic stress plus the incubation time were considered as the input parameters in the circumstances of the simulated small intestine. Also, the release level was chosen as the output parameter and in order to optimize the models several membership functions together with numerous learning cycles were implemented in the form of shooting method. By the evaluation of different models, triangular membership function with 4 functions for each of the inputs was selected as the optimum model. The high value of the coefficient of determination (0.99) plus the mean square error of 0.45 in the optimized model implies the acceptable accuracy of this method to monitor the release level in the digestive circumstances. With respect to the simplicity and the acceptable accuracy of these intelligent models, they can be suggested as appropriate solutions to evaluate the controlled release behavior within the food network and the digestive system as well.

In recent years, production of nutraceuticals by adding bioactive compounds and nutrients has been grown substantially. These compounds are generally sensitive to environmental or gastrointestinal conditions and their bioavailability is limited due to destructive reactions. One of the common methods to reduce or prevent these kind of problems, is microencapsulation of valuable compounds in some materials which can protect them against environmental conditions, and enabling them to controlled release from trapped compounds at specific time and place. Orange peel oil, contains some important bioactive compounds such as limonene that is used in a variety of beverages, foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and chemicals. D-limonene is the main constituent of orange peel oil, because it makes an 80-95% fraction of the orange peel oil volatile compounds, depending on fruit variety. In addition to its technological characteristics (flavor), D limonene can stop or delay the initiation of cancer. It can also be used as a safe alternative to antimicrobial compounds. Nevertheless, technological limitations (hydrophobic structure, high reactivity, sensitivity to oxidation and volatility) often avoid suitable use of this compound as a dietary supplement. Polysaccharides are among of the basic materials which are applied more in this field. Several factors such as cheap and easy access, having active groups interacting with hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds, biodegradation, biocompatibility and relatively high thermal resistance, have turned them to be superior to lipid and protein carriers. One of the most important polysaccharide compounds existing in nature, is starch. It can be used as a carrier in encapsulation processes with different purposes, having advantages such as inexpensive, non-toxic, capable of recrystallization, the ability to form film and complex and resistant to various degrees of enzymatic hydrolysis. Spatial configuration of amylose is changed in the presence of ligands such as iodine and linear alcohols, resulting in a left-handed helix which can trap ligands within or between curvatures derived from glucose connections. One of the major structures which is created in the interaction of amylose and lipophilic substances, is known as V-amylose structure. V-amylose is a left-handed helix with an inner hole which ligands can be placed within it. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of amylose in nanoencapsulation of limonene as a bioactive compound with desirable sensory characteristics using a thermo-mechanical stress.
Based on the analysis of pure limonene samples (Sigma-Aldrich) as well as samples used in this study, more than 92% of examined sample comprised of D-limonene. In order to prepare amylose nanoparticles containing limonene, 0.1 molar solution of potassium hydroxide (Merck, Germany) was prepared in deionized water and then high amylose corn starch (HACS) (Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA) with 70% amylose was added to it in the ratios of 2: 4% while stirring continuously for 30 minutes at 80°C. Limonene was then used in the ratios of 5: 10% of HACS was added to the suspension and stirring continued for 1 minute. Initial suspension has been processed by using ultrasound system (Model UP100- Hescheler Company, Germany) with 100 W power and frequency of 30 kHz for 9 and 18 minutes. The viscosity of amylose suspensions containing nanoparticles with different formulations was measured by using a capillary viscometer (Schott-Gerate-Capillary-Viscometer-525-00- Germany). Size and zeta potential was measured by using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and Nanotrac Flex In-situ Particle Size Analyzer devices and Microtrac ZETA-check determined. The morphology of nanoparticles was studied using a scanning electron microscopy (TESCAN-Vega3- Czech Republic). Microencapsulation efficiency and loading efficiency were determined by using spectrophotometry.
In all formulations, particle sizewere less than 50 nm. Starch granules were exposed to cavitation stress by applying the ultrasonic process .The constant formation of bubbles creates a mechanical impact with high energy on starch granules during bursting. Fast impingement of fluid to granule surfaces, hitting particles to each other as well as resistant of the granules against fluid stream cause breaking of starch particles into nanoparticle scales. The highest amount of zeta potential was related to the sample which had the highest starch and limonene concentration. Amylose concentration had the main effect on zeta potential changes. Electrostatic charges can be the main reasons for the higher zeta potential in samples with 4% amylose concentration. More increasing in surface active agents of amylose, namely ionized hydroxyl groups of glucose molecules leads to increasing in surface charge, and results in zeta potential. The most impact on solutions viscosity is related to amylose concentration. Generally, increasing the amylose concentration leads to increasing the solution viscosity, in other side, with ultrasound treatment, the amount of this index was reduced and the solution became more fluent. Microencapsulation and loading efficiency values ranged between 28-82% and 0.38-1.63% respectively. The limonene concentration had the most impact on the efficiency in various formulations. At similar treatments with %4 amylose concentration and 9 min sonication period, by increasing the amount of limonene from %5 to 10, microencapsulation and loading efficiency were increased from %31 to %82 (%62 growth) and from 0.52 to 1.41 (%63 growth) respectively.

In recent years, production of nutraceuticals by adding bioactive compounds and nutrients has been grown substantially. These compounds are generally sensitive to environmental or gastrointestinal conditions and their bioavailability is limited due to destructive reactions. One of the common methods to reduce or prevent these kind of problems, is microencapsulation of valuable compounds in some materials which can protect them against environmental conditions, and enabling them to controlled release from trapped compounds at specific time and place. Orange peel oil, contains some important bioactive compounds such as limonene that is used in a variety of beverages, foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and chemicals. D-limonene is the main constituent of orange peel oil, because it makes an 80-95% fraction of the orange peel oil volatile compounds, depending on fruit variety. In addition to its technological characteristics (flavor), D limonene can stop or delay the initiation of cancer. It can also be used as a safe alternative to antimicrobial compounds. Nevertheless, technological limitations (hydrophobic structure, high reactivity, sensitivity to oxidation and volatility) often avoid suitable use of this compound as a dietary supplement. Polysaccharides are among of the basic materials which are applied more in this field. Several factors such as cheap and easy access, having active groups interacting with hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds, biodegradation, biocompatibility and relatively high thermal resistance, have turned them to be superior to lipid and protein carriers. One of the most important polysaccharide compounds existing in nature, is starch. It can be used as a carrier in encapsulation processes with different purposes, having advantages such as inexpensive, non-toxic, capable of recrystallization, the ability to form film and complex and resistant to various degrees of enzymatic hydrolysis. Spatial configuration of amylose is changed in the presence of ligands such as iodine and linear alcohols, resulting in a left-handed helix which can trap ligands within or between curvatures derived from glucose connections. One of the major structures which is created in the interaction of amylose and lipophilic substances, is known as V-amylose structure. V-amylose is a left-handed helix with an inner hole which ligands can be placed within it. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of amylose in nanoencapsulation of limonene as a bioactive compound with desirable sensory characteristics using a thermo-mechanical stress.
Based on the analysis of pure limonene samples (Sigma-Aldrich) as well as samples used in this study, more than 92% of examined sample comprised of D-limonene. In order to prepare amylose nanoparticles containing limonene, 0.1 molar solution of potassium hydroxide (Merck, Germany) was prepared in deionized water and then high amylose corn starch (HACS) (Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA) with 70% amylose was added to it in the ratios of 2: 4% while stirring continuously for 30 minutes at 80°C. Limonene was then used in the ratios of 5: 10% of HACS was added to the suspension and stirring continued for 1 minute. Initial suspension has been processed by using ultrasound system (Model UP100- Hescheler Company, Germany) with 100 W power and frequency of 30 kHz for 9 and 18 minutes. The viscosity of amylose suspensions containing nanoparticles with different formulations was measured by using a capillary viscometer (Schott-Gerate-Capillary-Viscometer-525-00- Germany). Size and zeta potential was measured by using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and Nanotrac Flex In-situ Particle Size Analyzer devices and Microtrac ZETA-check determined. The morphology of nanoparticles was studied using a scanning electron microscopy (TESCAN-Vega3- Czech Republic). Microencapsulation efficiency and loading efficiency were determined by using spectrophotometry.
In all formulations, particle sizewere less than 50 nm. Starch granules were exposed to cavitation stress by applying the ultrasonic process .The constant formation of bubbles creates a mechanical impact with high energy on starch granules during bursting. Fast impingement of fluid to granule surfaces, hitting particles to each other as well as resistant of the granules against fluid stream cause breaking of starch particles into nanoparticle scales. The highest amount of zeta potential was related to the sample which had the highest starch and limonene concentration. Amylose concentration had the main effect on zeta potential changes. Electrostatic charges can be the main reasons for the higher zeta potential in samples with 4% amylose concentration. More increasing in surface active agents of amylose, namely ionized hydroxyl groups of glucose molecules leads to increasing in surface charge, and results in zeta potential. The most impact on solutions viscosity is related to amylose concentration. Generally, increasing the amylose concentration leads to increasing the solution viscosity, in other side, with ultrasound treatment, the amount of this index was reduced and the solution became more fluent. Microencapsulation and loading efficiency values ranged between 28-82% and 0.38-1.63% respectively. The limonene concentration had the most impact on the efficiency in various formulations. At similar treatments with %4 amylose concentration and 9 min sonication period, by increasing the amount of limonene from %5 to 10, microencapsulation and loading efficiency were increased from %31 to %82 (%62 growth) and from 0.52 to 1.41 (%63 growth) respectively.

Controlling and targeting release of bioactive compounds have a key role in improving their functional properties such as antioxidant and anti-disease activities. Encapsulation is one of the best methods for protection and controlling release of bioactive ingredients. Indeed, in this process, protection and controlling release of ingredients as core materials are performed by surrounding of them via variety of wall materials. Emulsions are most popular encapsulation systems that are classified in variety types such as single layer emulsion, multi-layer emulsion, doubleemulsion, and etc. Hydrophilic bioactive compounds can be loaded in inner aqueous phase of water in oil in water (W/O/W) double-emulsions. The stability of doubleemulsions is low due to presence of two interfaces in them.Applying a thermodynamically stable W/O emulsion (e.g., micro-emulsion) as a primary emulsion and using of complex biopolymers as emulsifier and stabilizer in outer phase of doubleemulsions can improve their stability (Dickinson, 2011; Boyer et al, 2012).
Saffron bioactive compounds include crocin, picrocrocin, and saffranal are widely used for a variety of functional and healthy goals in food and pharmaceutical industries. These compounds have many different functions, including anti-carcinogenic, anti-oxidant, anti-depressant, anti-apoptotic, anti-tussive, anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic properties (Moraga et al, 2004).
In the present study, our main goal was kinetically evaluated release of crocin, picrocrocin and saffranal from inner phase to outer phase of doubleemulsion during 22 days storage by Zero order, Fist order, Higuchi, and Hixson-Crowell.
Saffron was provided from Torbatheydariyeh farms, Khorasan-e-razavi, Iran. Sunflower oil and sodium azide were purchased from FRICO (Sirjan, Iran) and Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, USA), respectively. Whey protein concentrate (80% protein) and sorbitanmonooleate (span 80) were obtained from Sapoto cheese (USA) and Merck (Germany), respectively. Maltodextrin was obtained from Qinhuangdao starch Co. (DE 16-20, China) and citrus pectin with a degree of methyl esterification of 71.1% and galacturonic acid >65% was purchased from MP biomedical (Netherland). All other chemicals used in this study were of analytical grade.
For extraction of crocin, picrocrocin and saffranal, a total of 10 grams of saffron sample was macerated in 150 mL of water in a glass bottle, covered with aluminum foil (to prevent direct exposure to light), and was placed in an incubator shaker (Kavooshmega, Iran) for 24 hours at 30oC. Then, this solution was homogenized (10000 rpm for 10 minutes, HeidolphSilentcrusher, Germany) for maximum extraction of saffron compounds. Finally, the extract was filtered under vacuum by using a Whatman No. 1 (11 mm) filter paper, and kept in the freezer at -18oC prior to any examination. ISO/TS 3632 procedure (2003) was used for the measurement of saffron compounds.
The doubleemulsions were prepared in two-step: (a) Frist, primary W/O micro-emulsions were produced by two formulations: 60:30:10% and 62:33:5% of sunflower oil, span 80, and saffron extract, respectively.
(b) Then, the W/O micro-emulsions was gradually added into the outer aqueous phase contains why protein concentrate (WPC)/maltodextrin or WPC/pectin/maltodextrin while blending by a homogenizer (12000 rpm for 5 minutes at 10oC, HeidolphSilentcrusher, Germany) and then these coarse emulsions were further emulsified using mentioned homogenizer (15000 rpm for 8 minutes at 10oC). All doubleemulsions were composed of 25% primary emulsion and 75% outer aqueous phase
Droplet size of doubleemulsions after one day and 22 days storage weremeasured using Zetasizer (Malvern Instruments, Worcestershire, UK).
The released components in the outer aqueous phase were measured by evaluation of encapsulation efficiencyof the ratio of crocin, picrocrocin, and saffranalat a specific time: E (%) = 100- (C2×100/C1) (1)
Where C2 is the percentage of crocin, picrocrocin and saffranal in outer aqueous phase and C1 equals to the percentage of compounds in inner aqueous phase.
C2 is a released into outer aqueous phase relative to the total amount present in the outer aqueous phase if all compounds were released (M ∞).
The viscosity of emulsions was measured using a programmable viscometer (model LVDV -II Pro, Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, USA) and by a ULA spindle.
The released are kinetly evaluated by Zero order, Fist order, Higuchi, and Hixson-Crowell.
The experiments were all carried out in triplicate. The collected data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA; the means were compared by the Duncan's multiple range tests at the 5% level through SPSS version 21 (IBM, USA).
As shown in fig. 1, the droplet size of produced W/O micro-emulsions were lower than 200 nm. In fact, these droplets are water droplets containing bioactive compounds of saffron dispersed within oil phase that surrounded with Span 80 (Fig. 2).Also, it was found that by increase of saffron extract (from 5% to 10%) as dispersed phase in W/O micro-emulsions, droplet size and poly-dispersityindex (PDI) weresignificantly (P