فصلنامه فرآیند و کارکرد گیاهی
سال دوازدهم شماره 5 (پیاپی 58، آذر و دی 1402)

Garden Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) is a medicinal plant belonging to the Lamiaceae. The natural distribution and effective substances of some thyme species have been related to the amounts of calcium and magnesium in the soil. Accordingly, in this study, the effects of different calcium to magnesium quotients (0.28, 0.8, 2, 3 (control) and 8), which contain 1 to 3.5, 2 to 2.5, 3 to 1.5, 1.5 to 0.5 and 4 to 0.5 mM calcium to magnesium concentrations, were investigated on the vegetative and physiological charactristics of garden thyme in a hydroponic culture in a completely randomized design. The results showed that the high amounts of calcium and magnesium in the nutrient solution resulted in a significant increase in the leaf chlorophyll, carotenoids and anthocyanins, soluble carbohydrates and total protein content and a decrease in the root and shoot potassium content of the plant compared to the control. On the other hand, at the 8 calcium to magnesium quotient in the nutrient solution, the root and shoot calcium concentrations increased and the magnesium concentration reduced. The highest amount of phenolic compounds of garden thyme was observed at the 8 quotient of calcium/magnesium treatment. The amount of phenolic compounds in the plant decreased compared to control by increasing available magnesium. The calcium to magnesium quotients applied in this study, especially the ratio of 0.8, resulted in a significant increase of average leaf area, fresh and dry weight of root and shoot compared to the control. In general, it can be stated that 8 and 0.8 calcium to magnesium quotients in nutrient solution were the best for the growth of the plant species, and an 8 quotient was the best for phenolic compounds production.

Environmental pollution caused by heavy metals due to their non-degradability is a major concern in agricultural soils that threatens food security. Cadmium and mercury are among the two dangerous and carcinogenic pollutants that, in natural ecosystems are increased by human activities and lead to a decrease in protein production, the deactivation of some enzymes, disruption of various reactions and cellular actions, and the stoppage of growth and development. Since the contamination of agricultural land with heavy metals, on the one hand, leads to a decrease in the quality of agricultural products and, on the other hand, is a serious threat to human health, it needs more attention. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to investigate the effect of replanting wheat seeds resulting from the treatment of heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury on some morphophysiological parameters of two wheat cultivars. For this purpose, a factorial experiment was conducted in the form of a completely randomized design with three replications in the greenhouse of the University of Mohaghegh Ardabili. The first factor of wheat cultivars (Morvared and Falat) and the second factor of the experimental treatments include mercury chloride (with a concentration of 10 and 20 μM), cadmium chloride (0.5 mM), and the interaction effects of cadmium with mercury at two levels (10 μM of mercury with 0.5 mM cadmium, 20 μM mercury with 0.5 mM cadmium) were with the control seedlings. The findings showed that, except for the treatment with cadmium under the stress of the toxic metal mercury and the interaction effect of cadmium with mercury, the amount of soluble sugar and total protein, the activity of the catalase enzyme increased, but the activity of the antioxidant enzymes peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase decreased in the Morvared cultivar. The results indicate that the seeds obtained from the foliar treatment of cadmium, mercury and the interaction of these heavy metals and the re-cultivation of these seeds can affect their performance by changing the physiological characteristics. In general, under the stress of mercury chloride and cadmium chloride and their interaction, the Morvared cultivar showed a better reaction than the Falat cultivar. Therefore, based on the results of this greenhouse experiment, it seems necessary to continue research in field conditions.

Fodder plants have been considered due to their bioactive compounds that affect livestock nutrition and their therapeutic potential for humans. Nowadays, in fodder cropping systems, the proper time of harvesting is very important to obtain optimal performance. In order to investigate the effect of different harvesting times (one to eight weeks after initial harvesting)  on the content of some secondary metabolites (phenols, flavonoids, isoflavonoids and alkaloids) and metal elements (zinc, iron, magnesium and manganese) of alfalfa, a study was carried out based on a completely randomized design with three replications. The results showed that the concentration of these metabolites and metal elements changed significantly at different harvest times. So that the amount of total phenols increased by 2.37, 2.29, and 2.24 times in the fifth, sixth, and seventh weeks, respectively, compared to the second week. Also, the amount of total flavonoids increased by 1.89 times in the sixth week compared to the second week. The amount of total isoflavonoids in the sixth week increased by 1.75 times compared to the first week. The amount of total alkaloids in the seventh and eighth weeks compared to the first week was 10.58 and 11.75 times, respectively. Also, the maximum amount of iron element was observed in the fifth and sixth weeks, and the maximum amount of magnesium and manganese elements were observed in the sixth week. The presence of the maximum amount of these phytoestrogens and metal elements in the middle and the end stages (fifth and sixth weeks, respectively) of alfalfa flowering can be an important factor in determining the quality of fodder and determining the yield of the product, and considering their medicinal properties for humans, these stages are the most suitable harvesting times.

Due to the environmental effects of the widespread use of conventional chemical fertilizers, foliar application of nutrients can prevent an increase in chemical fertilizer use and pollution of surface and groundwater. Therefore, in the present study, the effect of foliar application of nano-chelate zinc (0, 1 and 1.5 g/l) under low fertigation conditions (90, 110 and 130 ml) on strawberry fruit C.V. Sabrina was performed in greenhouse conditions. The measured traits included antioxidant activity, vitamin C content, total phenol, flavonoids, anthocyanin content, antioxidant enzymes, and the content of iron and zinc elements. The results showed that the application of zinc chelate leads to increased yield, vitamin C, phenol and flavonoid content, and antioxidant capacity compared to control. The highest fruit yield (550.39 g) and iron element content (289.2 mg/kg DW) were observed in low fertigation of 130 ml and nano chelate zinc of 1.5 g/l, whereas the lowest yield (123.56 g) and iron element content (123.92 mg/kg DW) were obtained in low fertigation of 90 ml and nano chelate zinc at 0 g/l. Also, the highest activity of catalase enzyme (3.25 units/g FW) was obtained in 1.5 g/l of nano zinc chelate and low fertigation of 90 ml treatments. In general, it can be concluded that zinc chelate nano-fertilizer at a 1.5 g/l is suitable for improving the yield and quality of Sabrina cultivar strawberries under low fertigation conditions. Therefore, based on the results of this study, it is possible to suggest the use of a low fertigation treatment of 110 ml along with 1.5 g/L of zinc chelate nano to reduce the consumption of nutrient solution and water for strawberry hydroponic cultivation.

Optimum use of chemical and biological fertilizers and balanced plant nutrition as the most important soil fertility factors are among the priorities of agricultural sectors. In order to evaluate the simultaneous use of pyroligneous and inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi of the Glomus genus on the growth and yield of the Lallemantia iberica medicinal plant in poor soils, a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design was conducted in 2022. In this experiment, the first factor included pyroligneous with three levels (no application, application of 2 and 4 liters per hectare), and the second factor included arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi of the Glomus genus (no inoculation, seed inoculation with fungi, seed + soil inoculation with fungi) was performed in three replicates. The results showed that the traits of plant height, 1000 seed weight, biomass, seed yield, harvest index, oil percentage and oil yield were significantly affected by the interaction of pyroligneous and inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi. The highest amount of seed yield (2038 kg/ha) in the application of 2 liters per hectare of pyroligneous and inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi, and the highest oil percentage (25.11%) and oil yield (487.95 kg/ha) were related to the treatment of using 4 liters of pyroligneous per hectare and inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi. Palmitic, linolenic, oleic, linoleic, palmitoleic and stearic fatty acids were significantly affected by pyroligneous inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi. The use of pyroligneous and inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi reduced all fatty acids except linolenic acid, so that all levels of pyroligneous, seed inoculation, and seed + soil inoculation could increase the amount of linolenic acid compared with the non-inoculation treatment. In general, it can be concluded that simultaneous application of pyroligneous at the rate of 2 liters per hectare and inoculation of seeds + soil with mycorrhizal fungi is considered a desirable treatment to obtain high seed and oil yield of Lallemantia iberica plants in poor soils.

Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) is a valuable medicinal plant in the Mediterranean and West Asia. Silica is also emphasized as a very important element in improving the behavior of plants. Today, and especially in adverse environmental conditions, soilless cultivation systems are among the most important technologies of the day. Considering the growing importance of this type of cultivation technique, a factorial experiment in the form of a completely randomized design with four silica treatments with concentrations of zero, 0.75, 1.5 and 2.25 mM and three repetitions in four cultivation beds including soil and sand (soil derivatives), soil and vermicompost (soil derivatives), perlite (without soil and feeding with nutrient solution with Hoagland base), perlite and cocopeat (without soil and feeding with nutrient solution with Hoagland base) were done. After seedling cultivation and the completion of vegetative growth, growth, morphological, physiological and phytochemical indicators, including root length, fresh and dry weight of aerial organs and roots, relative humidity of leaves, photosynthetic pigments, total phenolics, total flavonoids, antioxidant activity, oxidation, yield and percentage of essential oil, were measured. The results showed that the interaction effect of silicon with culture media on morpho-physiological and biochemical indicators of marigold was significant at the level of 1% difference. However, growth and physiological indicators in the perlite culture bed had the highest averages compared to other beds. Increasing the concentration of silicon improved the performance to some extent, but the best results were obtained at a concentration of 1.5 mM. The highest amount of essential oil yield (0.06 mg per plant) was obtained in field soil conditions without silicon foliar spraying, and the highest percentage of essential oil (0.8%) was obtained in perlite culture medium with 2.25 mM silicon. Also, the highest amount of total phenol (140 mg/g dry matter) was obtained in the soil culture system, and 2.25 mM silicon and antioxidant activity (55 mg/g dry matter) were obtained in the soil culture medium and no use of silicon. According to the obtained results, it seems that despite the increasing effect of silicon on the growth parameters, the field soil substrate without the application of silicon has the best results on the secondary metabolites of the plant and is economical.

The accumulation of heavy metals throughout the ecosystem is now a major environmental problem that threatens the quality of life of all living organisms. In a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design, the effect of sodium nitroprusside on the physiological and biochemical responses of tomatoes under nickel stress was investigated. Tomato plants were grown in two concentrations of sodium nitroprusside (zero and 100 µM) and three different nickel concentrations (zero, 25, and 50 µM) with three replications under hydroponic conditions. The results showed that 50 μM nickel sulfate without sodium nitroprusside significantly reduced the relative water content of leaves (43.1%) compared to the same treatment with-sodium nitroprusside. An increase in electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde were observed as an indicator of oxidative damage in plants under nickel sulfate stress. In response to oxidative stress caused by nickel sulfate, the amount of chlorophyll decreased and carbohydrate and proline concentrations increased compared to the control. Application of sodium nitroprusside resulted in higher concentrations of chlorophyll b (4.54%) and total chlorophyll (3.57%) under non-nickel sulfate stress than the control. Antioxidant, peroxidase, and catalase activity increased by 62, 37, and 38%, respectively, under nickel sulfate stress when treated with 100 µM sodium nitroprusside compared to non-sodium nitroprusside treatment. According to the results, sodium nitroprusside at a concentration of 100 µM can reduce the negative effects of nickel exposure on the growth characteristics of tomato plants such as the number of leaves and dry weight of the plant, by increasing the antioxidant activity (increasing the activity of the enzymes catalase and peroxidase) and also the positive effect of proline accumulation on the RWC, so the use of this substance is recommended for tomato plants growing under nickel conditions.

To evaluate the effect of folvic acid and melatonin on some morpho-physiological and biochemical characteristics of strawberry cultivar Kamarosa under water stress, in the laboratories of the Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Mohaghegh Ardabili University, during one year (2020), a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with four replications. Experimental factors include three levels of irrigation (100%, 50% and 25% field capacity), folvic acid foliar application at three levels (control (zero concentration), 200 and 400 mg) and melatonin foliar application at three levels (control (Concentrations were zero), 75 and 150 μM, respectively). Results showed that foliar application of folvic acid and melatonin significantly increased chlorophyll, carotenoid, DPPH, proline, phenol, flavonoid and soluble protein and decreased MDA under drought stress conditions. Generally, the greatest improvement in measured parameters under drought stress conditions was obtained by treating plants with 200 mg folvic acid and 150 μM melatonin, which significantly increased drought tolerance in strawberry plants.

The mutant plants old3-1 (onset of leaf death 3-1) have a point mutation in the AT4G14880 gene. This gene encodes the cytosolic cysteine ​​synthase enzyme (OASTL-A1). Cysteine ​​is a sulfur-containing organic compound and a precursor of defense compounds, and the OASTL-A1 enzyme plays a role in the last step of its synthesis. The old3-1 mutation causes a change in the structure and activity of the cysteine ​​synthase enzyme, and the old3-1 mutant plants suffer premature cell death after 14 days under 21°C long-day conditions. In this research, the old3-1 mutant was compared with mutants B40-12, old3-2 and wild type Ler-0, Col-0 under short-day conditions and 21°C. Based on the phenotypic and physiological results, old3-1 plants did not suffer premature cell death and went through different stages of growth and development until flowering and seed production. Examining the activity of catalase and peroxidase enzymes under short day conditions showed that the activity of these enzymes in the leaves of old3-1 is higher than that of Ler-0 and B40-12, which means that in short-day conditions the activity of the enzymes increased. Examining the relative expression of immune system marker genes including GST1, DEFL and PR1 in 22-day-old seedlings old3-1 and Ler-0 under the same conditions (short day and 21˚C) following transferring to long day showed that the expression of the above genes in short day significantly increased, resulting in the survival of old3-1 mutant plants. According to the obtained results, short days improve growth and development conditions and save old3-1 seedlings from premature cell death.

Obtaining a high dry matter yield is one of the most important goals of plant physiologists. In this regard, it is necessary to know the effective traits in the production of plant dry matter. Salinity stress is also one of the most important non-biological stresses that limits plant growth and affects the morphological, physiological and biochemical properties of plants. Therefore, in order to understand the relationship between dry matter yield and antioxidant properties, photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic pigments of mint under salinity stress, an experiment was conducted as a factorial split-plot (18 mint ecotypes, including longifolia, pulegium, spicata, rotundifolia, mozafariani and piperita, salinity stress at control, 2.5, 5 and 7.5 dS/m levels and harvest stage at   2 stages), based on a randomized complete block design with four replications. The results showed that salinity stress affected the correlation between dry matter and other studied traits. Also, path analysis at different levels of salinity stress showed that total chlorophyll traits had a very high direct effect on dry matter yield. On the other hand, at a 7.5 dS/m salinity level, the dry matter yield of the plant depended on a greater number of traits compared to lower-salinity stress levels. Also, the correlation between traits in the first and second harvest stages was different. The anthocyanin pigment trait had a positive and significant correlation with dry matter yield at 7.5 dS/m. The indirect role of carotenoid pigment was also evident in severe stress. Based on path analysis, all the studied traits, including non-enzymatic antioxidants and anthocyanin and carotenoid pigments, were strongly dependent on the total chlorophyll trait to affect the dry matter yield.

Drought is one of the most threats in agricultural production worldwide, and climate change exacerbates this threat. Introducing drought tolerant cultivars and stocks is a fundamental solution. In order to evaluate the tolerance to drought of some economical rootstocks and varieties of Prunus spp., a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized block design with three replications at the Horticultural Research Institute, Kamalshahr, Karaj, Iran, in 2021–2022. The first factor included vegetative rootstocks of Myrobalan C29, Penta, Tetra, St. Julien, Mariana 2624, GF677 and GN15, along with seed rootstocks of plum as a control; the second factor was varieties of Japanese plum (Simka and NO16), European plum (Zuchelo) and Greengag Prunus and the third factor was drought stress (with interruption of irrigation for 14 days) and control (without interruption of irrigation). Evaluated biochemical traits included the activity of the antioxidant enzymes catalase, peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase, proline content, soluble protein, total antioxidant, ionic leakage and relative water content. The results showed that the activity of antioxidant enzymes under drought stress conditions in Zuchelo on GN15 rootstock, were increased compared to the control. The highest proline content was observed in the NO16 variety and GF677 rootstock. According to the results, in terms of the studied traits, Zuchelo, NO16, GF677, and GN15 were introduced as drought tolerant varieties and rootstocks.

Today, the use of organic and mineral substances is an important step in preserving the environment and is considered as one of the most effective management methods to maintain the quality of soil and the nutritional value of products at an optimal level. In the present study, the effect of 18 different culture media, including cocopeat + perlite (50-50, 75-25, and 25-75 %v/v), peat moss + perlite (50-50, 25-75, and 75-25 %v/v), vermicompost + perlite (50-50, 25-75, and 75-25  %v/v), compost+perlite (50-50, 75-25, and 25-75 %v/v), cocopeat 100% v/v, vermicompost 100% v/v, peatmass 100% v/v, perlite 100% v/v, compost 100% v/v and cocopeat + vermicompost + compost + peat mass + perlite (20-20-20-20-20 %v/v) on the concentration of nutrients of Cucumis melo var. dudaim (Dastanbo) were investigated. The pot experiment was conducted in a factorial, complete randomized block design with three replications. The results showed the highest levels of phosphorous and potassium in the fruits were related to the same ratio of all beds treatment, and 100% of vermicompost. The highest level of magnesium in the fruits was observed in 100% vermicompost and 100% compost. Additionally, the highest amounts of copper, zinc, and iron were obtained in the fruits treated with 100% compost. The highest titratable acidity (TA) and total soluble solid (TSS)/TA were under treatments of cocopeat 50% + perlite 50% and peat moss 100%, respectively. Our results suggest that two organic substrates, compost and vermicompost (100% v/v), had the greatest effect in increasing the concentration of nutrients in dudaim.

Since, salinity stress threatens food security and sustainable agriculture production, the response of plants to salinity stress has always been one of the most important subjects of physiological and biochemical studies. In order to evaluate the mutant lines in terms of agronomic, physiological and enzymatic traits under salt stress, a factorial experiment was carried out based of a randomized complete block design in three replications using paddy soil and adjusting its salinity in pots. The treatments included four mutant lines (MLST1, MLTH1, MLTH2 and MLTH3) along with two tolerant controls (Deilamani and Nonabukra) and two sensitive controls (IR29 and Sepidrood) at three salinity levels (zero, 4 and 8 dS/m). Results indicated that the highest amount of proline was obtained at a salinity level of 4 dS/m in the MLTH2 mutant, which showed an increase of more than 1.3 times compared to the conditions of no salinity stress. Obtained. The highest and lowest amounts of malondialdehyde (MDA) were respectively at the salinity level of 4 dS/m and no salinity stress related to the MLTH3 genotype. According to the results, the highest level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme activity was related to the MLTH2 mutant at 4 dS/m salinity and the lowest was related to the MLST1 mutant at 8 dS/m salinity. In the absence of salinity stress, the highest paddy yield was recorded in the salt sensitive cultivar of Sepidroud. By comparison, after applying salinity stress, the lowest yield reduction was obtained in the MLTH2 mutant. In general, based on the biochemical and yield evaluation, the MLTH2 genotype was identified as the best salt tolerant line, which will be to recommend for further research

In order to evaluate the pre-harvest application of calcium silicate and calcium chelate effects on some morpho-physiological characteristics of ‘Dolce Vita’ cut rose in the post-harvest stage, a factorial study was conducted based on a completely randomized design with 3 replications under hydroponic cultivation in a commercial greenhouse. Application of calcium silicate at concentrations of 100, 100, 200 and 400 mg.L-1 and calcium chelate at concentrations of 0, 25, 50 and 100 mg.L-1 in the pre-harvest stage was done by foliar spraying once a week for a month. In this study, morphological (fresh and dry weight of shoots) and physiological indices (chlorophyll a and b, leaves and petals flavonoids, total soluble sugar contents and calcium, silicon and potassium contents of leaves) were measured. The results showed that the application of 100 mg/l of calcium chelate and 200 mg/l of calcium silicate increased the fresh weight and dry weight of flowers (by 2.88 and 3.09 times, respectively), chlorophyll a content (91.85 percent), and the amount of soluble sugar in leaves and petals (2.27 and 1.5 times, respectively) compared to the control. The application of calcium chelate and calcium silicate at concentrations of 400 mg.L-1 and 100 mg.L-1 respectively, caused the highest amount of chlorophyll b (95.9 mg.g-1 of fresh weight) and the longest vase life (6.33 days increase compared to the control). The highest amount of petal flavonoid (1.02 mg.g-1 of fresh weight) was recorded in the concentrations of 100 mg.L-1 of calcium chelate and 200 mg.L-1 of calcium silicate, which was not significantly different from the other treatments except the control. Leaf calcium content was only affected by 100 mg.L-1 calcium chelate (53.84% increase compared to the control). The highest concentration of leaf potassium in the treatment of 100 mg.L-1 of calcium silicate and 25 mg.L-1 of calcium chelate (75.23% increase) and the highest concentration of leaf silicon in the treatment of 200 mg.L-1 calcium silicate and 50 mg.L-1 of calcium chelate (an increase of 1.03-fold compared to the control) were recorded. The results showed that the application of calcium chelate and calcium silicate at concentrations of 100 mg.L-1 and 200 mg.L-1, respectively, were more effective in improving the postharvest properties of rose cut flowers. In general, it can be stated that the combined application of calcium silicate and calcium chelate in the pre-harvest stage could improve the postharvest quality of ‘Dolce Vita’ rose flowers.

Drought stress is the main factor in reducing production and the area under soybean cultivation. In order to investigate the effect of drought stress on the biochemical and morphophysiological characteristics of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill], an experiment was conducted with 19 soybean genotypes in two environments without drought stress (watering weekly) and drought stress (watering every 10 days) in the form of a randomized complete block design with three replications in Khorramabad in the summer of 2017. The results of the analysis of variance showed that drought stress decreased the amount of chlorophylls a, b, a+b and a/b (66.6%, 37.2%, 53.8% and 43.9%, respectively); decreased the amount of phosphorus, potassium, iron and zinc in aerial parts (39.7, 69.8, 24.4 and 38.4 percent, respectively) and decreased the amount of phosphorus and zinc in seeds (0.10 and 7.2 percent, respectively), but it resulted in an increase in peroxidase and catalase of the shoot (0.15 and 47.6 percent, respectively) and an increase in the amount of potassium and iron in the seed (11.8 percent and 4.7 percent, respectively). Among the genotypes, the highest amount of aerial organ chlorophyll a was obtained from genotype number 1 and the lowest amount was obtained from genotype number 16. The comparison of the means by the cutting method showed that in the normal environment, the highest amount of aerial organ peroxidase was obtained from genotypes No. 8 and 9 and the lowest was obtained from genotype No. 19. While, in the stress environment, the highest amount of aerial organ peroxidase was obtained from genotypes number 6 and 15 and the lowest from genotype number 8. The trend of changes in grain yield and soybean leaf area index at different levels of the interaction effect of drought stress and genotype followed a significant and negative linear relationship, but the trend of changes in leaf temperature and shade floor light intensity followed a significant but positive linear relationship. In general, based on the amount of seed production, genotype number 7 is recommended for conditions without drought stress and genotype number 9 for drought stress conditions under moderate climatic conditions such as Khorramabad.

Drought stress is the limiting factor for rice growth in rice fields. One of the approaches to dealing with the negative effects of stress on crop production is the use of drought-tolerant cultivars. This research was conducted to investigate the effect of drought stress on changes in antioxidant enzyme activity and amino acid accumulation in a number of rice genotypes. In this research, the number of 6 rice genotypes along with the tolerant (Binam) and sensitive (IR64) control cultivars at the seedling stage in the form of a completely random basic design in 3 replications and 4 drought levels (from polyethylene glycol 6000) zero (Yoshida), -0.5, -1 and -1.5 times were investigated in hydroponic culture medium. The results of the analysis of variance showed that there is a significant difference between the examined cultivars and the level of enzyme activity also increased, and genotypes such as Danesh and LP8, which were more tolerant to drought, had a higher level of enzyme activity. The increase in activity in tolerant genotypes has been greater than that in sensitive cultivars. In the analysis of the amino acid profiles of the genotypes introduced above, the activity of glutamic acid, alanine, arginine, leucine and lysine increased significantly with the increase in drought stress. While no significant accumulation of amino acids was observed in the sensitive IR64 genotype under stress. Therefore, it can be concluded that the accumulation of amino acids is closely related to the drought tolerance of tolerant genotypes.

Rosemary is widely used as an ornamental and medicinal plant. Salinity is one of the most important problems for plant production in the world. Knowing the methods that lead to controlling and reducing the effects of salinity in plants is important. The present experiment was conducted as a factorial in a completely randomized design with three replications on three-month-old rosemary plants. The first factor was humic acid treatment (0, 250 and 500 mgL-1) and the second factor was sodium chloride treatment (0, 25, 50 and 75 mM). Based on the obtained results, the minimum length of the main branch (24.41 cm) and the secondary branch (7.68 cm) were obtained in 75 and 50 mM salinity treatments without humic acid, respectively. The highest fresh weight of shoot was in humic acid treatment of 500 mg L-1 + 25 mM salinity, which was not significantly different from humic acid treatment of 250 and 500 mg L-1 without salinity treatment. The dry weight of the branches was influenced by the simple effect of the treatments, so that humic acid 250 mgL-1was effective in increasing the dry weight of the branch, and the highest dry weight of the branch was observed at zero salinity and the lowest dry weight of the branch was observed at 75 mM salinity. The highest content of total chlorophyll and the amount of potassium were obtained in humic acid 500 mg L-1 and the lowest was related to salinity of 75 mM. The amount of proline, ion leakage and sodium percentage were at the maximum in 75 mM salinity without humic acid treatment. According to the obtained results, the use of humic acid 250 and 500 mg L-1 was effective in reducing the negative effect of salinity.

Contamination of arable land with heavy metals is one of the important environmental problems that causes a reduction in plant growth and yield. Applying the biological potential of beneficial microorganisms and biochemical compounds that reduce oxidative stress are promising techniques to protect plants against heavy metal toxicity. Accordingly, a pot experiment was conducted as a factorial completely randomized design with three replicates to investigate the effects of four levels of zinc (0, 250, 500 and 750 mg/Kg soil), two levels of P. indica fungus (inoculation and non-inoculation) and two levels of foliar spraying (sodium nitroprusside and water). The results showed that root colonization of stressed plants by P. indica fungus and foliar spraying of sodium nitroprusside effectively reduced zinc content in the aerial parts of stressed plants. In addition, the highest chlorophyll content and root and shoot dry weight were obtained in the presence of the fungus and the simultaneous use of sodium nitroprusside. In proso millet plants subjected to zinc stress, P. indica inoculation and NO application boosted the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) which was evident in the reduction of hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde content. In conclusion, the results of this experiment provide evidence that the utilization of synergistic effects between colonization of the endophytic fungus P. indica and foliar application of NO can be considered a proper approach to reducing the negative effects of zinc toxicity on plants.

Considering the importance of medicinal compounds in medicinal plant species, the production of secondary medicinal metabolites through callus cultivation and subsequent elicitation is economical and time-saving. Levisticum officinale Koch. is one of the valuable indigenous rangeland plants of Iran, which has many medicinal and industrial properties. This study was carried out to optimize callus induction and the effects of different concentrations of GO-SiO2 on the amounts of different secondary metabolites and antioxidant activity under callus culture. For callus induction, the hypocotyl explants were transferred to Murashige and Skoog (MS) culture medium containing different growth regulators. Analysis of variance showed that different plant growth regulators had a significant effect on The MS media supplemented with 1.5 mg/L 2,4-D + 0.025 mg/L (NAA) + 0.5 Kin showed the best percentage of callus production (95%). In order to investigate the effect of the elicitor on the amount of secondary metabolites in the callus, different concentrations of GO-SiO2 (0, 5, 10 and 20 mg/L) were chosen as elicitors. The selected nanoparticle showed positiveand stimulatory effects on the amount of secondary metabolites and antioxidant activity in the callus. The highest content for total phenolics (47.26 mg GAE/g FW), total flavonoids (28.06 mg QE/g FW) and antioxidant activity FRAP (0.096 μ mol /g extract) was observed under 10 mg/L of GO-SiO2. The highest contents for total flavonols (8.18 mg QE /g FW), H2O2 (5.09 μmol/g FW) and total anthocyanin (0.07 μmol/g FW) were observed under 20 mg/L GO-SiO2 treatment. The highest level of carotenoid content (28.11 mg/g FW) and chlorophyll (23.58 mg/g FW) were observed under 5 mg/ L GO-SiO2. The results of this study can be used to optimize the production of secondary medicinal metabolites in this valuable medicinal plant. According to the results of this study, the application of graphene oxide nanopaGO-SiO2 (10 mg/L) could be used for the highest production of total phenolics and flavonoids as well as increasing the antioxidant activity through callus culture in this valuable plant of Iran.

In order to determine the effects of water deficit stress, nitrogen fertilization on chlorophyll fluorescence, chlorophyll and flavonoid content and LAI dry matter yield of Peppermint, a split plot experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the research field of Tarbiat Modares University in 2018. The experimental treatments consisted of three irrigation regimes (respectively after depleting 25, 40 and 55% of available water in the root growth zone) as the main factor and six fertilizer treatments based on nitrogen requirement as sub-factors. The results demonstrated that water deficit stress significantly decreased maximum chlorophyll fluorescence (Fm), variable chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv), the photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm), photosynthesis rate, LAI and dry matter yield, but minimum fluorescence (F0) and flavonoid concentration increased under water deficit stress. The results indicate that the drought stress caused the light inhibition of photosystem II and also, by reducing the leaf area, led to a decrease in the yield of dry matter of peppermint in such a way that the severe drought stress caused a decrease of 43% compared to the control. On the other hand, in most of the examined traits, the treatments that were treated with nitrogen fertilizer (especially vermicompost) improved the photosynthetic indices and, finally, the dry matter performance of the plant and also managed to moderate the negative effects of severe water deficit stress on them. In addition, in the direction of sustainable agriculture and due to the medicinal nature of peppermint, it is possible to reduce the consumption of chemical fertilizers by 50% by combining urea and vermicompost.

Salinity is one of the most important growth limiting factors and rice production in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. In order to investigate the effect of salinity stress on biochemical characteristics and the expression of some inducible genes in the seedling stage of rice, an experiment in the form of chopped plots with a basic design of randomized complete blocks were performed with four replications. The main factor included five levels of zero (control), 50, 100, 150 and 200 mM sodium chloride to create salinity stress. Salinity levels were applied along with Yoshida's nutrient solution in a hydroponic system. The sub-factor included four varieties of rice (Kashuri, Shiroodi, Tarem and Kohsar). In this research, the cellular oxidation level index (TBARM), enzyme activities and expression of some important antioxidant genes, including catalase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbic peroxidase, and the TCTP transcription factor, were investigated. The results of the variance analysis of the data showed that the difference between cultivars and salinity levels for all studied traits was significant at the probability level of 1%. Also, by increasing the salinity level, the activity of the studied enzymes and the expression of catalase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbic peroxidase and TCTP genes increased. According to the obtained results, Shiroudi and Kohsar cultivars were identified as salinity tolerant cultivars.

Heavy metal contamination in the soil is a widespread global problem, and to reduce the accumulation and negative effects of heavy metals in plants, using different growing substrates is an effective and economical solution. In order to investigate the improvement of the growth and physiological characteristics of cumin with different growing substrates under the stress of heavy metals, a factorial experiment was carried out in the form of a completely randomized design with three replications in 2020–2021. The first factor includes four levels of heavy metals (control, cadmium, lead, and nickel) with a concentration of 50 mg/kg of soil, and the second factor includes different growing substrates at four levels (control, animal manure, compost and vermicompost). The results showed that heavy metals in the soil caused absorption and transfer to aerial organs. On the other hand, the use of organic fertilizer treatments caused a significant reduction of cadmium, lead and nickel in aerial parts compared to control. Heavy metals decreased shoot dry weight and seed yield by increasing ion leakage and decreasing the content of photosynthetic pigments. Animal manure and vermicompost significantly increased the chlorophyll content and the relative water content of leaves compared to the absence of organic fertilizers. Also, the enzyme catalase and ascorbate peroxidase of cumin leaves showed an increasing trend with the use of heavy metals. In total, the results of this research showed that the application of vermicompost and animal manure provides the best conditions for the growth of cumin under the stress of heavy metals.

Soil salinity is one of the most important abiotic factors that has an adverse effect on plant growth. Despite the difference in salt tolerance among different varieties and species of roses, saline soils contain a significant concentration of salt, which can damage rose species in green spaces irrigated with saline water. This research was conducted in order to investigate the effect of different levels of pistachio tree biochar on some biochemical properties of rose, based on a factorial experiment with a 3x4 arrangement and a completely randomized design with four replications. This research included two factors: biochar at four levels (no application, 25, 50 and 100 gr per 1 kg of potting soil) and salinity from sodium chloride salt at three levels (0, 75 and 150 mM). The results showed a decrease in petal anthocyanin as well as an increase in proline and total phenol following the increase in salinity. However, the use of biochar in the amount of 3 kg at a stress of 75 mM increases petal anthocyanin, potassium, and the ratio of potassium to sodium by 1.17, 1.02, and 1.26 times, respectively, and decreases proline, total phenol, and sodium, respectively. It was found to be 0.87, 0.41 and 0.81 times higher compared to the control treatment. 75 mM salinity increases carbohydrates, antioxidants, and flavonoids by 1.03, 1.02, and 1.02 times, respectively, and decreases calcium and iron by 0.92 and 0.71 times, respectively, compared to the control (no use). from Biochar) On the other hand, biochar at the level of three kilograms caused a significant decrease in flavonoids by 0.99 times and an increase in iron by 1.22 times compared to the control. In general, it can be said that three kilograms of biochar had a significant effect on reducing the negative effects of salinity stress resulting from irrigation on rose plants. For this reason, the use of biochar in order to reduce the adverse effects of salinity stress in salinity-sensitive plants, including roses, and considering the expansion of saline lands in the world and especially in Iran, is important and plays a significant role in compensating for the resulting damage. Therefore, it is suggested that it be tested on a larger scale (farm level) as well as other stress factors such as cold, heat and drought.

Sports grass is a suitable mixture of premium and resistant varieties of grass that has been widely accepted in many countries of the world for lawn work in parks and sports fields. Considering the role of nanotechnology in the production of plants, it is very important to investigate the effect of nanoparticles on the growth processes of grass. In this research, the effect of iron oxide nanoparticles on some morpho-physiological characteristics of sport grass was investigated. The iron element is very important due to its placement in the electron transport chain and its role in photosynthesis. This research was carried out in a completely randomized design with three replications in fully controlled conditions. Foliar spraying of iron oxide nanoparticles was investigated in three stages with different concentrations (zero, 50, 100, 200, and 400 ppm). The results of variance analysis showed that the effect of iron oxide nanoparticle foliar application on some morphological characteristics such as root length, plant dry weight, and plant density per unit area was significant. The results of the comparison of the average effect of different concentrations of iron oxide nanoparticles on the dry weight of sport grass plants indicated that the concentration of 100 ppm of this nanoparticle accounted for the highest amount of dry weight of the plant with 0.080 grams, also the effect of foliar spraying of this nanoparticle. All physiological traits (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, anthocyanin, catalase antioxidant enzyme, guaiacol peroxidase antioxidant enzyme, and free radical inhibition percentage) were significant at the 1% level. Based on the results of this research, the application of different concentrations of iron nanoparticles had a favorable effect on the amounts of photosynthetic pigments and antioxidant enzymes, which can be suggested as a suitable elicitor to increase the growth of morphological parameters and increase the quality of physiological parameters in sport grass.

Biological and chemical fertilizers have important effects on the growth and development of plants and consumption of these fertilizers has increased quantitative and qualitative production in plants. In this study, the effects of biological fertilizers such as Botamisol, Humic acid, horse manure, sheep manure, cow manure, poultry manure, vermicompost and complete chemical NPK with two controls (water foliar application and without any foliar application) and three levels of drought stress (field capacity, 50% and 75% loss of gravitational water) on morpho-physiological characters and the content/composition of the essential oil of Rosa damascenawere investigated. This research was performed in a randomized complete block design in a factorial layout with three replications. From thirteen essential oil components, the most components were Citronellol, Geraniol (alcoholic oxygenated monoterpenoides), Heneicosane and Nonadecane (alkane hydrocarbons). Heneicosane (33.6 % and 34.6 %) had the highest amounts of essential oil components. Treatments of poultry manure, vermicompost or complete chemicals in field capacity conditions increased the height of the plant (214.4 cm and 212.1 cm), number of stems (23.1 and 22.2), total chlorophyll (18.3 and 18.1 mg.Kg FW-1), R.W.C (68.4 and 69.5), petal yield (7651.5 and 7591.2 Kg.ha-1) and content of essential oil (0.076 and 0.069%). Suggest to obtain the highest quality of essential oil in damask rose, such as important components (Citronellol, Geraniol) in the same condition, using poultry manure and complete chemical fertilizers.