hourieh ahadi

psycholinguistic is one of the new interdisciplines of linguistics in which One of the key questions raised in this field is how to understand and express and acquire language. According to the different characteristics of languages, it is necessary to study the psycholinguistic in a language-specific approach. The purpose of this study is a comprehensive and systematic review of language-specific studies at the level of the phonetic system of the Persian language to reveal the research gaps while categorizing and analyzing the findings of the researches.To carry out this research, all the articles indexed in the scientific information database of "www.ensani.ir", "www.sid.ir", "www.noormags.ir", "www.magiran.com" and www.irandoc.ac.ir", and the collection of articles of psycholinguistic conferences with the related keywords and those studies whose results were used in explaining the questions raised in the psycholinguistic were studied and investigated.Based on the present study, the main areas of research in the field of Persian phonetics are voicing, vowel space, tone of speech, phonetic coordination, development of language sounds and speech errors. The most studies are related to the suprasegmental characteristics, coordination between sounds, and the distinction between voiced and voiceless, and the least study is related to the development of sounds and vowel space. The studies conducted on the development of sounds and speech errors and coordination between sounds have been done only in the field of expression, and no studies have been conducted in this field of comprehension in the Persian language.In phonological studies, the general results of various researches related to the development of phonemes and phonological processes, phonology of the Persian language and its unconscious understanding by language speakers, categorical perception and finally phonological awareness are presented in the discussion section; But unfortunately no study was found on understanding the sounds of the language (native or other languages) at birth. Most of the studies were in the field of phonological processes and the least studies were in the field of categorical perception. In most studies, especially studies related to phonological processes and the development of phonological expression in children, the experimental method has been used, but unfortunately, the details necessary to conduct this type of research have not been considered or recorded. In the text of the article, these essential details are mentioned.

Grammar is a key element of language knowledge and a factor in predicting language learning and success. Early diagnosis of grammatical errors in children before entering school is very important. So far, no tool has been designed to evaluate the Azerbaijani language grammar comprehension in Iran. The present study aims to design the Azerbaijani language grammar comprehension test for Iranian children aged 4-6 along and assess its validity.

This is a mixed-method (qualitative-quantitative) study. After searching in various databases and reviewing available articles, 42 grammatical structures of the Azerbaijani language were extracted, of which 8 were removed after preliminary examination by experts. Then, 204 items were formulated for the remaining 34 grammatical structures. To determine the content validity, the test was sent to 11 experts in the field of Azerbaijani language grammar to evaluate the items. According to their opinions, two more suitable items were selected from among four items for each grammatical structure and included in the initial version for the pilot study. The initial test version was conducted on 30 children aged 4-6 years with normal language development.

After calculating the content validity ratio (CVR), two grammatical structures were removed, and 32 structures with 128 items having CVR≥0.59 remained. After calculating the content validity index (CVI), the items with CVI≥0.79 were selected. The initial version had 32 grammatical structures and 64 items. None of the items were removed in the pilot phase, and only 10 items were modified. The CVR and CVI of the test were 0.91 and 0.87, respectively, indicating good content validity.

The Azerbaijani language grammar comprehension test has good content and face validity and can be used to evaluate the grammar comprehension of children with Azerbaijani language aged 4-6 years.

In the absence of an age normed developmental battery for Persian, the major objectives of this research are to develop a reliable and valid clinical linguistic battery to collect normative data from 3 to 7-year-old healthy Persian speaking children. The battery can also be used to measure severity of language impairments in 3 to 7-year-old Persian speaking children as compared with their aged matched peers.

Development of this battery is considered as a descriptive tool in which reliability and validity of the normative data were developed in 3 stages. The first version with 9 different sub-tests, 180 items and two descriptive pictures was developed after cultural and linguistic adaptations for the Persian language for different linguistic levels of phonology, morphology, syntax and pragmatics. The first draft was performed using 200 3 to 8-year-old healthy children in Tehran to measure the sensitivity of different tasks of the test for different age groups. This draft was not sensitive for 8-year-old children. The CVR of the first draft of the battery was checked by 3 Persian speaking clinical linguistic experts and 3 expert speech therapists and also was introduced to 20 SLP experts in a clinical linguistic workshop. In the second stage, based on the results and suggestions, necessary corrections were made in the test structure and items. Also, plural morpheme task of the previous version which was not sensitive enough, was removed and a new semantic task (word definition) as a sensitive semantic task used in other developmental language batteries was added to the battery. The results showed that the diagnostic sensitivity of the test for the 8-year-old age group is not satisfactory. The final version of the battery consisted of 9 subtests with 105 items and two descriptive pictures were used to collect normative data from 200 children. To evaluate reliability and validity of the final version, the opinions of 8 speech therapists and linguists were used.and to evaluate the construct validity, the correlation matrix and confirmatory factor analysis and for its validity Cronbach’s alpha were used. The final version of the battery was sent to expert speech therapists in 5 selected target group provinces (Tehran, Mazandaran, Fars, Esfahan and Khorasan) to collect normative data from 1200 3 to 7-year-old typically developement children in available kindergartens and schools. Finally, the collected data for task items and connected speech measures were processed and analyzed using SPSS software, version 20.

The content validity was 0.78 and test reliability was 0.76. In addition to confirm the construct validity and diagnostic validity of the test, the correlation between the sub-tests and the overall test scores were also significant at the level of 0.01 (with a correlation of 0.20 to 0.83). The norm for each age group was six months and one year and was calculated as a standard score and reported in the tables.

Finally, the results of the normative data of this battery are proved to be clinically normative as an indication of the level of linguistic development for each age group and also determine the severity of their language impairment. The battery can also be used to measure the efficacy of rehabilitation in 3 to 7-year old Persian speaking children.

 The study of language development and metalinguistic awareness of children is one of the main topics in learning disorders. Some believe that linguistic ability and metalinguistic awareness play an important role in the ability of children with dyslexia to read; Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the linguistic and meta linguistic skills of children with dyslexia and normal children. For this study, 16 dyslexic students and 32 children of the same age were selected and after performing linguistic and metalinguistic development tests, the results were analyzed by SPSS software.According to the results of the present study, there is a significant difference between the normal and dyslexic groups in most subtests of language development and phonological awareness tests. Unlike grammatical judgment and lexical awareness subtests, the difference between the two groups is quite significant in the verb tense subtest. In both groups, there is a correlation between some subtests of meta linguistic with some subtests of language development.Therefore, these findings confirm the hypothesis of interaction between metalinguistic and linguistic development and show that dyslexic children, unlike lexical awareness tasks, have problems in most linguistic and metalinguistic, so it is necessary these skills will be Strengthen.

Today, comparing the scores of tests and evaluation scales with each other and the correlation between them is done to check and compare the test’s accuracy in diagnosing reading problems. The present study investigated the correlation between the scores of the Persian reading comprehension assessment task (PRCAT) and the text comprehension subtest of the reading and dyslexia test (NEMA) in fourth and fifth-grade elementary school students.

In this study, 24 students from the fourth and fifth grades of elementary schools in Tehran City, Iran with normal reading skills participated. The set of items for the Persian reading comprehension assessment task and the text comprehension subtest of the NEMA test were taken from the students.

The results showed a positive correlation between the scores of the PRCAT and the text comprehension subtest of NEMA, and the correlation coefficient between them is 0.622 (r=0.622, P<0.01).

The results showed that the PRCAT has an acceptable validity compared to the text comprehension subtest of the NEMA test.

The purpose of this research is to analyze the literature related to phonological awareness in dyslexic children in order to summarize the treatment results and determine the research gaps in order to use the existing findings in the compilation of books and the research gaps to guide future research. To conduct this study, first, the related keywords were searched in the ensani.ir, sid.ir, Noor mags.ir, magiran.com and irandoc.ir, and all the titles related to phonological awareness were separated and in the next step, by reading the abstracts and, if necessary, the entire article, articles related to the research topic were collected. The review of 42 found studies showed that in the majority of studies (62%) the effect of phonological awareness training in dyslexic children was investigated and the effect of phonological awareness on the improvement of reading and writing of these children was confirmed. Therefore, due to the lack of phonological awareness training in the new educational systems of reading and writing (word reading) in schools, it is necessary, in addition to completing the necessary research in this field, in the design of books and teaching them, phonological awareness training and reading training in a new way (path Phonological path) should be taken into consideration.

Bilingual children are sometimes over-identified with language impairment and sometimes their language impairment under-identified that in either case, proper intervention is not possible. Accurate measurement of bilingual child language development involves assessing both of their languages. The purpose of this study was to identify a set of measures that would discriminate language impairment in bilingual Turkish-Persian children aged 5 to 7 years in Tehran.

In this descriptive-analytical study, the language sample of 24 bilingual children with no language impairment and 8 bilingual children with language impairment was analyzed according to the linguistic measures of mean length of Terminable-unit, number of total words, number of different words, and number of grammatical errors per Terminable-unit. Children without language impairment were selected from kindergartens and schools by multi-stage cluster sampling method. Language-impaired children were selected by the Speech-Language Pathologist with at least three years of bilingual speech and language pathology services from Tehran-based speech therapy clinics in an accessible manner. There was no significant difference between the groups in terms of nonverbal intelligence, age of exposure and duration of exposure to Persian. Parents responded to questions about their perceptions of their children’s speech and language skills and family history of speech and language problems.

Diagnostic analysis indicated that 3 measures discriminated the groups of children with sensitivity 87.5%: the Parent Report Questionnaire, number of total words, and mean length of T-unit.

According to the results, Indicators of parental reports and language criteria in identifying the language damage of Turkish-Persian bilingual children can be of diagnostic use for speech and language pathologists.

Autism spectrum disorder has always been associated with pragmatic language disorder. The present study aims to investigate the effect of audio-visual social stories and pragmatic exercises on improving (non)verbal communication skills in children with autism. It is a clinical trial with a pretest-posttest design. Subjects were selected by convenience sampling method which included 19 children aged 7 to 9 years old with autism spectrum disorder (level 1: requiring support). They received an intervention program organized in 18 individual sessions of 45 to 60 minutes. The findings of the study revealed that utilized audio-visual social stories and pragmatic exercises improved pragmatic level in children with autism spectrum disorder. In other words, it had a positive effect (p< 0.05) on the subscales of pragmatic skills in the Bishop Communication Checklist Questionnaire (1998). According to the results, it was shown that audio-visual social stories and pragmatic exercises improved (non)verbal communication skills in children with autism.

Reading is one of the most valuable skills of the human being. This complex behavior is composed of several distinct and separable subskills. Furthermore, different theories of reading methods have been proposed and each language has a different paradigm depending on its writing system. Apparently, the most common method among these is the one-to-one correspondence between phoneme and grapheme. However, this method has some drawbacks. According to Ahri and Snowling (2004), if the sequential decoding strategy is slow and inefficient it overloads the memory leading to inaccurate pronunciation and lack of associative meaning. As a result of repeated exposure to printed words, children's knowledge of spelling patterns is expanded to facilitate its retrieval of meaning. To clarify the role of decoding in reading and reading disability, a simple model of reading is proposed. According to the Simple View (Gough & Tunmer, 1986), reading ability can result from the combination of decoding and comprehension. In this view, reading comprehension is conceptualized as the product of two interrelated -but relatively independent- cognitive processes, that are, decoding (or word recognition) and listening comprehension (or language comprehension). Both of them are necessary cognitive components, and neither alone is sufficient for successful reading comprehension. In addition to word recognition problems, many reading-disabled individuals were found to have impaired reading comprehension. Although the central role of phonological deficits in word recognition difficulties has been widely demonstrated, the role of language abilities in the reading profile of dyslexic individuals has not been fully captured. Dyslexia, also known as specific reading disability, has been defined as one of several distinct learning disabilities that reading performance is markedly below what is expected in normally achieving readers (Siegel, 1992). In some studies, the existence of lexical problems in dyslexic children has been investigated. It has been shown that the level of lexical and semantic ability of children affects their reading comprehension. For example, some have explained that the breadth and depth of children's lexical knowledge affect their ability to recognize words. Additionally, there is evidence that has consistently established a strong association between language competence and reading abilities. In particular, oral vocabulary (measured with an oral receptive/expressive measure or a word definition measure) and semantic skills (measured with a synonym judgment task) were found to be concurrent and longitudinal predictors of word recognition and reading comprehension. Further contribution of oral vocabulary and semantic skills on reading comprehension in these studies provide clear support for the position that reading comprehension involves language comprehension beyond word recognition. Likewise, there are several studies about effective factors in reading. Some believe that vocabulary and syntactic ability play an important role in children's reading ability. There is also evidence that language skills such as syntactic complexity and lexical skills in 2 and 3-years old children are important predictors of their reading accuracy and comprehension in the future. Most of the research about the factors that affect reading has been in English. Hence, because of the different clarity in the orthography of different languages (from transparent to opaque languages), it is necessary to investigate these children in different languages. The present study aims to convey the relationship between reading skills and syntactic and lexical abilities in dyslexic and normal Persian-speaking children. For conducting this research, after issuing necessary licenses, primary school children with dyslexia were identified by referring to learning disorder schools in Tehran. After evaluating and diagnosing the dyslexic children by a psychologist and a speech therapist, 16 dyslexic students were selected. The Syntax Comprehension Test, Grammar Expression Test, vocabulary subtest of TOLD 3:P, and the reading test were then performed in different sessions. The results of the tests were recorded and the data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical package. According to the results of the present study, there is a significant difference in reading skills and syntactic and lexical abilities between dyslexic and normal Persian-speaking children. The results show that there is no significant correlation between reading skills and syntactic abilities. However, regarding lexical abilities in the dyslexic group, there is a significant correlation between the picture vocabulary and speed and accuracy of reading, between relational vocabulary and speed of reading, and also between oral vocabulary and reading accuracy and text comprehension (p <0.05). Moreover, there is a significant correlation between reading irregular words and two other tasks (picture vocabulary and oral vocabulary), but there is no significant correlation between reading non-words and oral vocabulary, and picture vocabulary and relational vocabulary. Therefore, strengthening the lexical ability of dyslexic children, in addition to improving their reading skill's accuracy and fluency, is essential for reading words especially irregular words.

Reading is undoubtedly one of the most valuable skills of human beings. This complex behavior is composed of several distinct skills. Different theories about reading methods have been proposed and many researchers believe that reading methods varies in languages because of the different transparency in their orthography, so the purpose of this study is to investigate the Persian word reading pattern in children with dyslexia and normal children and compare their abilities.

For conducting this cross-sectional study, after issuing required permits, the elementary school children with dyslexia were identified by referring to learning disorders schools in Tehran City, Iran. After evaluating and diagnosing by the psychologist and speech therapist, 16 students with dyslexia were found. Then 32 normal age-matched students of Tehran’s public schools were randomly selected from the available population as the control group. The reading and phonological awareness tests were then performed in different sessions. The results of the tests were recorded and the data were analyzed by the Mann-Whitney and Spearman tests in SPSS version 20.

There was a significant difference between children with dyslexia and their age-matched normal group in reading skills and phonological awareness (P<0.05). In both groups, the mean percentage in reading irregular words was higher than the mean percentage of non-word reading. There is a significant correlation between reading speed and reading irregular words in both groups, and also between reading accuracy and reading non-words (P<0.05). There was a significant correlation between the reading speed and reading non-words in the group with dyslexia (P<0.05). But in normal children, there is no significant correlation between these tasks. This difference shows the problem of children with dyslexia pertains to reading non-words.

Based on the results of the present study, in children with dyslexia, there is a problem with reading non-words, and the dual-route of word reading has changed to only the whole word reading route. So it is important to consider phonological awareness skills training in children with dyslexia.

Many researchers believe that children with cochlear implants have normal speech development like children with normal hearing. However, speech errors or phonological processes which in normal children usually disappear by the age of six, may, in children with severe/profound hearing impairment and cochlear implants, take longer to disappear, sometimes extending beyond age six. In order to help treatment, it is therefore necessary to examine the existence and type of speech errors among these children. The rationale behind the present study is that these processes which are known to be different in different languages and dialects, seem to be under-researched in Persian. To investigate and describe the normal and abnormal phonological processes in the continuous speech of four children of cochlear implantation from different grades in the elementary school for the deaf, the standard phonological test was used. Then their speech errors were analyzed. The results showed that normal phonological processes still exist in these children and that the elimination of the final consonant is the most frequent process (11/25), whereas the reduction of the cluster is the least frequent (0/75). The elimination of the final consonant, predilection, disengagement, and extension of the four phonological processes were found to be normal, having maximum values  in all the four cases. The most abnormal phonological processes concerned the number of laterals (3/75) that were found in all the four cases. Based on the findings of the study, it is concluded that there are normal and abnormal processes in the speech of children with cochlear implantation but their number decreases as they grow older.

Regarding the impact of hearing loss on language development and metalinguistic skill and being language development different from metalinguistic skill in bilingual children, studying of these skills in different bilingual children and comparing them with normal bilingual children can help us understand more about language development in children and the factors involved in it. The present study aims at Investigating and Comparing linguistic and metalinguistic skills of bilingual (Turkish-Persian) children with cochlear implant and their normal hearing peers.

The present follow-up study was conducted on six children with cochlear implant and six normal hearing peers that was randomly selected from preschool students of Zanjan city in the school year of 97-98. We compared these children in Mean Length of Utterance, lexical richness, lexical awareness and syntactic awareness. To investigate language development, continuous speech, and to investigate metalinguistic awareness, lexical awareness (including content and structural analysis of word definition) and syntactic awareness tests was used.

Data analysis revealed that developing language and metalinguistic skills in bilingual preschool children with hearing loss in Turkish-Persian were delayed. (P <0.05). But in Persian language, of the indices of language growth, only the Mean Length of utterance (mean number of morphemes per word) is delayed (P <0.05). There was no significant difference in any of the content and structural aspects of word definition in hearing loss children (P>0.05).  The low ability level of subjects’ in metalinguistic skills in Turkish language can be ascribed to the formal teaching of Persian in schools. In addition, Spearman's correlation coefficient indicated that there is a positive and significant correlation between indices of language growth, lexical awareness of bilingual (Turkish-Persian) children with hearing loss and normal hearing peers in both Persian and Turkish.

Grammar is frequently considered as the strength in the language profile of autistic children. Only a few studies have investigated the grammatical knowledge of these children. There are some research studies, but they are inconclusive, and less is known about the linguistic characteristics of children with autism in some languages, like Persian. Thus, the present study aimed at the detailed examining of syntax comprehension in Persian speaking children. 
The required data were collected from 10 children with autism (6-9 years old) and 20 healthy children (10 age-matched and 10 language-matched). Then, we used the Gilliam autism rating scale (GARS-2) for diagnosing autistic children. We used syntax comprehension test for assessing syntactic structures in children with autism and their normal peers. The obtained data were analyzed by statistical tests.  
The obtained results suggested a significant difference between the autistic group and age-matched healthy group in all structures, except for two elements, negative, an irreversible three-element sentence, reversible above and below, as well as sentences with object and subject pronoun. However, a comparison between the autistic group and the language-matched group revealed no significant difference in most structures, except for reversible passive, relative clause in the subject, relative clause in the object, and singular/ plural infection.
Overall, autistic children have consistent comprehension impairment in relative clauses, reversible sentences, and morphosyntax, which should be seriously treated. The comparison of children with autism with age-matched healthy children indicated that a syntax comprehension test could be useful for differentiating Persian speaking children with autism from those with simple language delays.

Since there is no special reading and writing book for the Persian children with autism and also their cognitive and linguistic abilities are different, the investigation of the effective factors on their reading skill is an important step for evaluating and modifying their using pedagogical books. In the other hand, Persian language has a different orthography and grapheme–phoneme correspondence from other languages (English, Italian...), so the effect of phonological awareness in it΄s reading is also different. Therefore, it’s necessary to identify the correlation between phonological awareness and reading in Persian children with autism. In this research, 26 children with autism and 30 normal Persian children living in Tehran were participated. Two tests (phonological awareness and reading) were performed and the results were analyzed by statistical tests. Results showed that in the group with autism, there is a meaningful correlation between word reading and phoneme combination and same first Phoneme recognition, and between non word reading and alliteration, phoneme segmentation, first and final phoneme deletion. In control group, there is a significant correlation between word reading (and non-word reading) and the onset and rhyme awareness, phonemic awareness, alliteration, same first phonemes, first phoneme and middle phoneme deletion. Also, there is a significant difference between the children with autism and control group in all subtests except for the syllable segmentation (0.075) and phoneme combination (0.163). Therefore, the degree of skill and correlation in the children with autism is different from the normal children and this should be noticed seriously in teaching reading.

Phonological awareness is an extensive skill for detecting, manipulating, or analyzing the components of oral language, apart from their referents. The phonological awareness consists of different levels from the simplest to the most difficult level. We considered two Persian phonological awareness tests (visual and auditory) with different subtests. This research aimed to investigate the relationship between the total score, subtests scores, and their differences. This cross-sectional study included 40 normal children of kindergartens in Tehran, Iran. Based on experimental research designs and cluster sampling method, the samples were selected from four preschool centers, in Tehran. We implemented the auditory and visual phonological awareness tests. The obtained data were analyzed by Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, the Pearson Correlation Coefficient, the Independent t test and the Paired t test in SPSS. In spite of significant differences in the total scores (P<0.05) and the scores of some tasks such as rhyme recognition (P<0.05) and final phoneme recognition (P<0.05), there was a positive correlation between the total scores (r=0.466) and the syllable segmentation tasks (r=0.339). Comparing the results of the two tests showed that variations in the response format and task demand can change complexity of the tasks, which could lead to different scores

Rate of speech as a supra-segmental feature, directly affects the speech fluency and Intelligibility. Studies have shown some factors such as gender, age, living place, and accent can influence on speaking rate. So, it is important to consider norms of each language during assessment and diagnosis. Since studies to determine the standards for speaking rate is very limited in Farsi language, this survey was done to compare speaking rate and articulation rate in young and elderly Farsi speakers who live in Tehran city.
52 young and elderly men and women participated in this cross sectional study and convenience sampling approach was used for this selection. Two different speaking samples were recorded for each participant including a reading text sample and a 3 minute spontaneous speech sample. Speaking rate was determined and articulation rate in reading and spontaneous speech were considered after excluding filled and empty pauses.
The highest rate belonged to articulation during speaking, articulation during reading and spontaneous speech respectively. Both of speaking rate and articulation rates were significantly less in elderly than youth and also more in men than women.
Age, gender and task affect on speaking rate. Hence, such factors are important to be considered by speech and language pathologists during diagnosing and assessing the fluency problems

Language impairment is a primary characteristic of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, findings of language deficits in these children have been inconclusive, and many researchers believe that in such children the pattern of language profiles is different from normal children. To determine this pattern, comprehension and expression of syntax were examined in 10 Persian speaking children at ages 6-9. Children with autism were compared to normal groups on the basis of their age and language.
Material and In this study, research data were collected of 10 children with autism and 20 normal cases (10 age-matched and 10 language-matched). Gilliam Autism Rating Scale- 2 and the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire were used for diagnosis of children with autism, and test of language development was used to determine their language scores. Afterward, reception of syntactic structures was assessed using the Persian syntax comprehension test, and expression of it was also evaluated using a Persian photographic grammar expression test. Finally, the data were analyzed by Kolmogorov–Smirnov, Mann–Whitney, and Wilcoxon tests.
Comparing the total scores shows that in normal groups, there was a significant difference between receptive and expressive of syntax both in terms of the number of correct tasks and number of correct structures. However, in the study group, such a difference was only seen in the number of correct tasks. Comparison of reception and expression of different structures in all groups showed that there was a significant difference between receptive and expressive tasks of subject relative clause in children with autism and language-matched group. However, in age-matched group, such a difference was not noticed. As to the grammatical relations such as aspect, tense and superlative adjectives, there were no significant differences between receptive and expressive tasks of any groups. Finally, there was a significant difference in terms of using of independent pronouns just in group of children with autism.
Overall, it can be concluded that comparing total scores of difference between reception and expression does not suffice for making a hypothesis that in ASD comprehension of all structures is more difficult than their expression because their performance in different structures of syntax is variant.

The aim of present study is to assess modularity of language. To this end, we measured the ability of children with specific language impairment in pragmatic and grammar and compaired them with normal children. First we used narrative speech, language development and specific language impairment tests for diagnosis, then 6 children with specific language impairment were compared with 6 age-matched and 6 language-matched normal children in their grammar and pragmatics. Independent t-test, Man Whitney and Wilcox tests were used for analyzing data. It is shown that the children with SLI perform much lower their language-level with respect to grammatical properties (time agreement), but in pragmatic properties (reference) they don’t have meaningful differences. The result of this study shows that impairment in grammar beside good performance in pragmatic provides support for modularity of language.

Research In autism has not focused on linguistics, specially grammatical impairment in depth. However representing language profile is essential to recognition and treatment of autisitc children. Due to wide heterogeneity in autism, extensive investigations are required across different language groups. Passive structure is one of the most interesting structures among the developmental researchers. This paper aims to evaluate the comprehension of active and passive structures in Persian autistic children. For this purpose, comprehension of passive and active sentences in 10 autistic children of 6-10 years old was studied and compared to that of children -at similar age- with typical development. First children were presented with four pictures for each of the 13 sentences chosen for this study. Then, active and passive sentences were expressed conversationally and children were asked to choose a picture matching the sentence they heard and their answers were recorded. The Results showed that there was a significant difference between autistic and non-autistic children in comprehension of passive and reversal active sentences (P0.05). There was no significant difference between the two groups in comprehension of structures active sentences (P>0.05) but there was a significant difference in comprehension of passive sentence (P

Study in clinical linguistics can reflect and requirements of this area, and can contribute to effective and useful changes in this area.

Since there have been a few studies in the field of clinical linguistics in Iran, this research can pave the way to find research priorities of clinical linguistics in our country.

Studies related to linguistics and speech therapy were collected and studied since their appearance in the literature up to 2012 to determine the number of studies performed on clinical linguistics and its evolutionary trend.

The most and least numbers of studies conducted by speech therapists on linguistics are related to phonetics/phonology (37%) and pragmatics (14%), respectively. In linguistics, there are a few studies on disorders (0.02%), which are mostly in the domain of aphasia (40%); therefore, other disorders should be investigated too.

The number of linguistic studies on language and speech therapy is more than that of the studies in which clinical data are used to study the theories and hypotheses. Therefore, it is necessary to consider this area seriously and guide the studies toward the theories proposed in the related disorders. Thus, attention must be paid to pragmatic and semantic domains of the disorder which are considered less.

in regard to previous various studies, the role and importance of phonology is clear in ability to read. However, studies have shown different outcomes in understanding the relationship between memory, language and phonological awarness. Considering the different characteristics of Persian script and the lack of phonology and related cognitive processing in Farsi, the present study seemed to be necessary. Also because of the relationship between phonological memory and reading, in this study we expected to find the power of language proficiency and memory in predicting children's reading skill. The present study assessed the statistical correlation between the memory, language and phonology in Persian language preschoolers.
This cross-sectional study included 40 normal preschoolers from Tehran. Phonological working memory tests (Digits Recall and Non-word Repetition: NWR), phonological awareness and language development tests were used.
There was a strong positive correlation between phonological working memory (Digits Recall and NWR) and the phonological awareness total score. Also there was a correlation between phonological awareness and language development scores. In spite of positive correlation between language development and Digits Recall, there wasn’t any relationship between language proficiency and NWR.
Results showed positive statistical correlation between phonological awareness, phonological working memory and language proficiency in normal Persian speaking children. And also language skills and memory can work as predictors for reading skills in children.

Despite numerous foreign studies in clinical linguistics, few studies conducted in our country. However, development of it, not only can help to the examination of speech and language disorders, but it also can provide a basis for linguistic hypotheses and theories. Explaining this bidirectional approach in clinical linguistics we examined 6 children with specific language impairement, and besides showing the characteristic of these children, we used this clinical data for showing modularity in language.
We used narrative speech, language development and specific language impairment tests for diagnosis, and Independent t-test, Man Whitney and Wilcox tests for analyzing data. It is shown that the children with SLI perform much below their age-level with respect to grammatical properties (time agreement), but in pragmatic properties (reference) they don’t have meaningful differences.
This finding provide support for the hypothesis that grammar and pragmatics are two independent language component and the hypothesis that children with SLI are impaired in their grammer, but not in their (interface) pragmatics.
Result of this study showing that impairment in grammer beside good performance in pragmatic besides using linguistic in characterizing language disorders; provide support for using clinical data in linguistic theories such as modularity of language

1- Reading is recognized as the essential part of scientific learning and development of awareness, the basis for teaching other language skills, and one of the most important goals of teaching language. Bernhard believes that reading is the only goal of learning a foreign language.
Reading is the process of perceiving and interpreting encoded information through writing. Bernstein and Tigermann consider reading as the product of cognitive and language abilities as well as previous knowledge. In their opinion, the reader should employ processes such as audio-visual perception, cognitive abilities (attention and memory), language knowledge and past experience in order to establish a connection between printed letters and their meaning.
In teaching reading programs, teachers must be aware of the important connection between reader, reading and development of other language skills. They should consider reading as the central language skill in teaching and then, through effective reading instruction, promote the development of other language skills.
2- Theoretical framework: Cognitive, spoken and visual processes are counted as the processes involved in reading comprehension. Eye movements and brain activity during reading, considered to be among visual processes, have provided the utmost information on reading approaches.
Grabe divides processes affecting reading comprehension into low and high levels. Low level processes include phonological encoding, lexical retrieval, syntactic segmentation and semantic encoding by syntactic information and word meaning. High-level processes involve using prior knowledge and global knowledge. On this basis, bottom-up and top-down approaches are formed and an interactive approach to reading is developed by combining them. Interactive approach is regarded as the most comprehensive description of the process of reading. Each of the three approaches includes different models and Neil Anderson has proposed the most systematic model of teaching reading based on the interactive approach. Anderson’s model consists of six principles from the initial letters of which, the term ACTIVE is formed: 1. activate prior knowledge (A)
2. cultivate vocabulary (C)
3. teach for comprehension (T)
4. increase reading fluency (I)
5. verify reading strategies (V)
6. evaluate progress (E)
3- The four skill series Modern Teaching of Persian Language (Ghabool, 2013) which is a new teaching resource for non-Persian speakers includes six volumes of which the first to fifth one have been published. The series is now being taught in some Arabic countries and Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Center for Teaching Persian to Non-Persian Speakers. Due to the influence of this series and the major role of reading skill in language learning, reading texts of this work were evaluated on the basis of Neil Anderson's model.
The survey includes 28 lessons which enjoy reading texts. Components of each lesson are evaluated with the principles, techniques and sub-techniques of Anderson’s model and the result of evaluation is inserted on a table specific to each volume. Titles which were not used in the teaching series have been ignored in the tables.
4- Comparing data obtained from the analysis of the five volumes shows that as the students’ knowledge increases the type of exercises change and larger parts of Anderson’ model are used at higher levels. Thus, in the first volume, the focus is on cultivating vocabulary and activating prior knowledge, but from the second volume on, verifying reading strategies, increasing reading fluency and teaching for comprehension are also considered but in a lesser degree. In general, the five volumes mostly emphasize on expanding vocabulary which is affected by the bottom-up approach. The sixth principle, “evaluate progress” is ignored due to its time consuming characteristic in this four-skill teaching series.
5- Conclusion and suggestion : In Modern Teaching of Persian Language, the principles proposed by Neil Anderson have been applied in varying ratios. In terms of arrangement of teaching materials, some differences are found in the series with Anderson’s organizing and ordering of techniques and sub-techniques. For example, discussing about topic and subject which is specific to pre-reading stage has been planned after reading the text. In addition, some of Anderson’s concepts have been used with different interpretations and applications such as “thinking” which doesn’t coincide exactly with think-aloud concept discussed in the model. It should be noted that the full implementation of Anderson’s principles is easier in resources specific to reading than in four-skill teaching resources where a limited part of learning time is allocated to reading.
According to the above, it is proposed that in the future revisions of the series, principles and techniques proposed by Anderson, should be sufficiently employed for teaching reading especially in the third, fourth and fifth volumes. In addition, it is recommended that more effective efforts should be made to facilitate vocabulary learning process in each lesson.
Reading skill; processes involved in reading; bottom-up, top-down and interactive approaches

In order to compare word definition skill between bilingual and monolingual SLI (specific language impairment), we can investigate characteristics of these children and limited processing capacity (LPC) hypothesis about SLI.
Six (7-8 years old) bilingual (Azeri- Persian) children with specific language impairment were evaluated about their word definition and then compared with 12 normal children. Impaired children were diagnosed as exhibiting a significant delay (more than one year) in language that cannot be explained by intelligence deficits, hearing loss or visual impairment. We used specific language impairment and language development tests for diagnosis and Man Whitney and Wilcox tests for analyzing data.
There is no meaningful difference between bilingual and monolingual children with SLI (p=0.394) (p=0.394).There is meaningful difference in structural aspect of definition skills (p=0.02) between Persian and Azeri language of bilingual children but in content aspect there is not significant difference (p=0.17).
Findings showed that there is no meaningful difference in comparison between Bilingual and monolingual children with SLI. Therefore, LPC hypothesis about SLI is rejected.